ELECTRICITY

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CHAPTER - 12
 Contents
 What is Electricity ?
 What is Charge ?
 Properties of Charge
 Methods of Charging
 Electric Current
 Electric Field
 Electric Potential & Potential Difference
 Ohm’s Law
 Resistance
 Electric Circuit and components
 Current and Voltage Measurements
 Combination of Resistances
 Series vs. Parallel
 What is
Electricity ?
.
 What is Electricity ?
• Electricity is a form of a energy that can
be easily changed to many other forms.
• It can also be defined as
flow of electrons in a circuit.
1. What is
a Charge ?
 What is a Charge ?
• Charge is an inherent/intrinsic property of any
matter/substance/material that feels/experiences
force of attraction or repulsion due to excess or
deficiency of electrons(presence of electrons).
• It is of two types :
(a) Positive Charge (Due to electron deficiency)
These are made of sub-atomic
particle called
“protons”.
• (b) Negative Charge (Due to excess of electrons)
These are made of sub-atomic
particles called
“electrons”.

• S.I. unit of electric charge is “Coulomb” denoted

by ‘C’. It is detected and measured
using a device called “Electroscope”.
• An electron has a negative charge of 1.6 × 10-19 C
• The S.I. unit of 1 coulomb is equivalent to the
charge containing 6.25 × 1018 ≈ 6× 1018 electrons.
 SOME HISTORY ABOUT
CHARGE AND
CURRENT
Name of the Scientists Work - Field
Benjamin Franklin(1752) Charges and Static
Electricity
Thomas Alva Direct Current(DC)
Edison(1870s)
Nikola Tesla(1888) Alternating Current(AC)
Electroscope
2. Properties
 Properties of Charge
• The total charge of the universe is always conserved i.e.
constant
• Like Charges attract each other and unlike charges repel each
other
• Charges are additive in nature
• Charges are always quantized which means it is
an integral multiple of amount of charge on one
electron i.e. Q = n x e where q = charge,
n = no. of electrons
e = charge on one electron i.e.
1.6 x 10-19 C
• Charge is relativistically constant
 Methods
3.
Charging
 Methods of Charging
• Charging by Conduction
When an uncharged body is brought into contact
(touched) with an charged body then the charge or
electrons are transferred from the charged body to the
uncharged body. This charges the uncharged body.
 Methods of Charging
• Charging by Induction
In the induction process, a charged object is brought
near but not touched to a neutral conducting object.
The presence of a charged object near a neutral
conductor will polarize the charge within the
conductor.
4. Electric
 Electric Current
• Electric current is the amount of charges flowing
through a particular area in unit time.
• In other words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges
(or electrons) through a conductor .
If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a
conductor in time t, then the current I, through the
cross-section is
I = Q/t = ne/t
• It is a scalar quantity
• Its S.I. unit is coulomb per second
• The electric current is expressed by a unit called
“Ampere(A)” , named after the French scientist
Andre-Marie Ampere(1775-1836)
• The direction of electric current is taken as opposite to
the direction of the flow of electrons, which are
negative charges
• It flows as a result of potential difference across the
ends of a conductor
• One ampere – Current flowing through a conductor is
said to be 1 ampere if one coulomb ofcharge flows
1 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑚𝑏
through it in one second .
1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 =
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
• Some other quantities of current are expressed in
miliampere and microampere as follows

1 mA = 10-3 A
1 µA = 10-6 A
• Electric current is measured by an instrument/device
called “AMMETER”
NOTE- Direction of Conventional/Electric
Current in an electric circuit is always taken
as opposite to the direction of flow of
electrons,which are negative charges.
The figure given below shows a schematic diagram of a
typical electric circuit comprising a cell(2 batteries), an
electric bulb, an ammeter and a plug key. Note that the
elctric current flows in the circuit from the positive
terminal of the cell to the negative terminal of the cell.
5. Electric Potential
and
Potential Difference
 Electric Potential
• It is the amount of work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from infinity to a given point in the
electric field.
• It is a scalar quantity
 Potential Difference
• Potential difference between two points in an electric
circuit is the amount of work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from one point to another point in an
electric field.
Potential difference(V) between two points
= Work done(W)/ Charge(Q)
V = W/Q ( joules/coulomb)
• The SI unit of electric potential difference is Volt(V),
named after Alessandro Volta(1745-1827),an Italian
Physicist.
• It is a scalar quantity
• One volt is the potential difference between two points in a
current carrying conductor when 1 joule of work is done to
move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other.

Therefore, 1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb

1 V = 1 J C-1

• It is measured by a device called Voltmeter. The voltmeter is

always connected in parallel across the points between which
the potential difference is to be measured.
6. Ohm’s
 Georg Simon Ohm
Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1789
– 6 July 1854) was a German
Physicist and Mathematician. As a
school teacher, Ohm began his
research with the new
electrochemical cell, invented by
Italian scientist Alessandro Volta.
Using equipment of his own
creation, Ohm found that there is a
direct proportionality between the
potential difference (voltage) applied
across a conductor and the resultant
electric current. This relationship is
known as Ohm's law.
 Ohm’s Law
• This law states that at constant physical conditions like
temperature remains constant, the potential difference
across the ends of a conductor in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to the amount of current flowing
through the conductor i.e.
VαI
V = IR where R is constant called Resistance
• According to this law conductors are divide into -
1. Ohmic conductors (follow ohm’s law)
2. Non- ohmic conductors (do not follow ohm’s law)
According to Ohm’s law, we can also write

R = V/I
If the potential difference across the two ends of a
conductor is 1V and the current through it is 1 A, then the
resistance R, of the conductor is
1 Ω. That is
1 ohm = 1 volt/ 1 ampere
I-V Graphs for Conductors
 Resistance
8.
Resistivity
 Resistance
• It is defined as the hindrance to the flow of current
• It is the ratio of potential difference to current i.e.
R = V/I
• Its S.I. unit is volts per ampere or Ohm (denoted
by Ω)
resistance is called Conductance (C) .
• Reciprocal or Ω-1
S.I. unit Ohm-1 i.e.
 Factors on which the Resistance of a
conductor depends
Based on experiments, it has been observed that the resistance
of a conductor is directly proportional to its length(l) and
inversely proportional to the area of cross-section(A) i.e.
• R α l …………(i)
• R α 1/A………(ii)

From (i) and (ii) we get,

 R α l/A
 R = ρl/A where constant “ρ” is the specific resistance of
the conductor
 Specific Resistance
• Specific resistance is the resistance of a conductor of
unit length and unit cross sectional area i.e.
if l = 1 m and A = 1 m2 then R=ρ
• It depends on material of the conductor
• Denoted by rho i.e. “ρ”
• S.I. unit is Ohm metre (Ωm)
• Ρ α Temperature of the conductor
• Also known as Resistivity
Resistivity Table
 Types of Resistances
 Fixed Resistances: Their value does not change under
constant physical conditions. They are set at a particular
value
 Variable Resistances: Their resistance can be easily
changed by changing area of cross section and length

Fixed Resistors Variable resistance or Rheostat

9. Electric Circuit
and
Its
Components
 Electric Circuit
• A continuous and closed path in which electric current
can flow is called an electric circuit.
• There are 2 types of circuits –
1. Open Circuit: No current flows
2. Closed Circuit: Current flows continuously

Open Closed
circuit
circuit
10. Measuring
 Ammeter
 It must be connected in series in the circuit.

 Positive side of ammeter must be connected nearest

to the positive terminal of the battery (electric
cell), and vice versa.
 Voltmeter
 Voltmeters must be connected in parallel to the
circuit.
 The positive side of voltmeter is connected to the
positive terminal of the cell, and vice versa.
 Combination
11.
Resistances
 Combination of Resistances

There are 2 ways of joining resistors together

1. Series Combination
2. Parallel Combination
 Resistance in Series
• When two (or more) resistors are connected end to end
consecutively, they are said to be connected in series.

• When a number of resistors connected in series are joined

to the terminal of a battery, then each resistance has a
different potential difference across its ends (which
depends on the value of resistance). But the total
potential difference across all the ends of all the resistors
in series is equal.

• When a number of resistors are connected in series, then

the same current flows through each resistance
 Resistance in Series
• The figure shows three resistances R1,R2,R3 connected in series. Now
suppose potential difference across resistance R1 is V1 , R2 is V2 and
R3 is V3. Let potential difference across battery be V, then :
V = V1+V2+V3.
Applying Ohm’s law to the whole circuit : V = IR. ………..
(1) Applying Ohm’s law to the three resistors separately, we get:
V1 = I x R1. ………………….. (2)
V2 = I x R2. ………………….. (3)
V3 = I x R3. ………………….. (4)
Substituting (2), (3), (4) in (1)
IR = IR1 + IR2+ IR3
OR, IR= I (R1+R2+R3)
Or, R = R1+R2+R3 .
Therefore we conclude that the sum total resistance in a series resistance
connection is equal to the sum of all the resistances.
 Resistance in Parallel
• When two (or more) resistors are connected between the
same points, they are said to be connected in parallel.
• When a number of resistance are connected in parallel, then the
potential difference across each resistance is same which is
equal to the voltage of battery applied.
• Different amounts of current flows through each resistance (which
depend on the value of resistance). But the current flowing
through each parallel resistance, taken together, is equal to the
current flowing in the circuit as a whole. Thus, when a number of
resistance are connected in parallel, then the sum of current
flowing through all the resistances is equal to the total current
flowing in the circuit.
 Resistance in Parallel
• The figure shows three resistances R1,R2,R3 connected in series. Now
suppose currant across resistance R1 is I1 , R2 is I2 and R3 is I3.
Let total current in the circuit be I, then:
I = I1+I2+I3.
Applying Ohm’s law to the whole circuit : I = V/R. ………..
(1) Applying Ohm’s law to the three resistors separately, we get:
I1 = V / R1. ………………….. (2)
I2 = V / R2. ………………….. (3)
I3 = V / R3. ………………….. (4)
Substituting (2), (3), (4) in (1)
V/R = V/R1 + V/R2+ V/R3
OR, V/R= V (1/R1 +1/R2 + 1/R3)
Or, 1/R = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3 .
Therefore we conclude that the sum total resistance in a parallel
resistance connection is equal to the sum of reciprocal of all the
resistances.
12. Series
vs.
Parallel
 Series vs. Parallel
S.No. Criteria Series Parallel
Equivalent More than the Less than or equal to
1. highest resistor the lowest resistor
Resistance
Amount of Current Current is less as Current is more as resistance
2. resistance is more is more
If one is appliance is If one is appliance is
3. Switching on/off switched off others also switched off others
do not work work independently

If one appliance If one appliance stops

4. Appliance failure stops working, none working, others will
of the appliances work independently
will work
Potential Each appliance receives Potential Difference is
5. Difference maximum potential divided so, each
difference appliance receives less