NAV 3

Bachelor of Science in Marine Transportation

Terrestrial and Coastal
Navigation 2

MIDTERM WEEK 1
OUTCOMES
Apply knowledge in mathematics, science
PROGRAM 5.2.a and technology in solving problems
related to the profession and the
workplace;

Use appropriate techniques, skills and

5.2.c modern tools in the practice of the
profession in order to remain globally
competitive; * and
OUTCOMES
PROGRAM Demonstrate the competence to perform
5.3.1 the functions pertaining to navigation,
cargo handling and stowage, controlling
the operation of the ship and care for
persons on board under Table A-lI/1 and
acquire some knowledge and
understanding under Table A-ll/2 of the
STCW Code that are covered by this
program under Annex A1.
 C01. Use the most
appropriate terrestrial
Course method of fixing the ship's
position under prevailing
Outcome circumstances and
conditions.
 o LO 1.1 Identify important
terminologies in terrestrial and coastal
navigation when conducting dead
Learning reckoning navigation

Outcome o LO1.2 Display accurately on a

ellipsoid the various conventions and
concepts on navigation used when
solving for vessel’s position
Topic/s: 1. Definitions – Earth
CONTENTS .1 Course Overview

.2 Basic Knowledge on Earth’s

Shapes

.3 Geographic Coordinate System

.4 Unit of Distance Measurement

1.2 Introduction

Because of the "bulging" caused by the Earth spinning, the Earth is no

completely round, thus, is not a sphere. Instead, we use the term
"oblate spheroid," or "ellipsoid."

Earth is not a perfect sphere, but rather an ellipsoid. This means that
the Earth's shape is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the
equator. Understanding the Earth's ellipsoidal shape is important for a
variety of reasons, from accurately measuring distances to
understanding the planet's gravitational field.
1.2 Introduction

Its shape is that of an oblate spheroid, the

equatorial diameter being more than the
polar diameter. The equatorial diameter is
7926.7 statute miles while the polar
diameter is 7899.5 statute miles. In
kilometers the equatorial radius is 6378.16
km and the polar radius is 6356.77 km. The
difference of about 27 miles between these
diameters as compared to the average
diameter of 7913 miles is so small that the
Earth may be considered a true sphere for
most purposes.
1.2 What is an ellipsoid?
An ellipsoid is a three-dimensional geometric
shape that resembles a squashed sphere. It
is formed by rotating an ellipse around one of
its axes, resulting in a shape that is oblong or
elongated in some dimensions and
compressed in others.
When it comes to the Earth, the planet's
ellipsoidal shape means that its diameter at
the equator is larger than its diameter at the
poles. This is due to the centrifugal force
generated by the Earth's rotation, which
causes material to move away from the axis
of rotation and towards the Equator.
1.2 The Earth's shape
There is ample evidence to support the idea that the Earth is an
ellipsoid. One of the most compelling pieces of evidence is the fact
that the planet's gravity varies depending on location, with stronger
gravitational forces at the poles and weaker forces at the equator.
Other evidence includes measurements taken by satellites and
other instruments, which have revealed that the Earth's shape is not
perfectly spherical but rather flattened at the poles and bulging at
the equator.
1.2 Why is the Earth an ellipsoid?
There are several factors that contribute to the Earth's ellipsoidal
shape. One of the main factors is the planet's rotation, which
generates centrifugal force that causes material to move away from
the axis of rotation and towards the equator.

The Earth is an irregular oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at the

poles). Measurements of its dimensions and the amount of its
flattening are subjects of geodesy. However, for most navigational
purposes, assuming a spherical Earth introduces insignificant error.
The Earth’s axis of rotation is the line connecting the north and
south geographic poles.
1.2 Why is the Earth an ellipsoid?
Other factors include the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun,
which cause tides that further distort the Earth's shape, as well as
the density and distribution of materials within the planet's interior.
1.2 The Earth's shape

What shape am
I?
.... Really???
1.3 Implications of Earth's ellipsoidal shape
The Earth's ellipsoidal shape has important implications for a variety
of scientific fields. For example, it affects the distribution of land and
water on the planet, with more landmass in the northern hemisphere
due to the bulge at the equator. It also affects the planet's gravitational
field, which can impact everything from satellite orbits to ocean
currents.

Understanding the Earth's ellipsoidal shape is the Conclusion

In conclusion, understanding the Earth as an ellipsoid is essential for
making sense of the world around us. From the planet's gravitational
field to its distribution of land and water, the Earth's shape has
important implications for a wide range of scientific fields.
1.3 Implications of Earth's ellipsoidal shape
A new, physically motivated triaxial reference ellipsoid for the Earth
has been proposed. This ellipsoid is an equipotential surface in the
gravity field and is specified by the body's total mass, form factors,
longitude of the equatorial major axis, rotation rate, and surface
potential. A practical procedure has been proposed to solve for the
ellipsoidal parameters that converges to fulfill the condition of
equipotentiality. The gravity field is composed of two components:
gravitational due to mass distribution and centrifugal acceleration due
to rotation.
1.3 Implications of Earth's ellipsoidal shape
An example is presented for the Earth using Lamé functions, which
are related to surface spherical harmonics. Properties of these
functions are discussed for numerical precision. The centrifugal
potential on the ellipsoid is expressed as a linear combination of the
surface sectoral and zonal EHs. An alternative solution for the triaxial
reference ellipsoid has been presented, which does not need to
assume or restrict the magnitude of polar and equatorial flattening. A
method to construct a reference ellipsoid with a constant gravitational
potential has been provided, and an example is given for the Earth.
Additionally, formulas for evaluating normal gravity have been
presented.
1.3 Confused???
The WGS 84 datum surface says Earth ELLIPSOID!!!

is an oblate spheroid, so does in

MARINA exams!

If you look from the Sea Level, Earth’s

shape is a Geoid

In layman’s terms we use the term

Sphere or Round or Ball!
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Poles (of the Earth).

The Earth’s Poles are

the extremities of the
Axis of the Earth.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!

The Equator is the line traced out on the Earth’s surface

by the mid points of the Meridians.

Compression and states its Value

The earth's shape is described as an oblate spheroid. The polar
diameter is 6860.5 nm which is 23.2 nm shorter than the
average equatorial diameter of 6883.7 nm. This gives a
compression ratio of 1/2967.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
International Nautical Mile
The nautical mile is a standard, fixed unit of distance and is equal to
1852 meters (2025 yards or 6080 feet).

The sea mile is the length of one minute of arc, measure along the
meridian, in the latitude of the position. The length varies both with the
latitude and with the figure of the earth in use. The sea mile is used
for the scale of latitude on large scale charts, because distances are
measured using the latitude graduations of the chart borders.

The geographical mile is the linear measurement of one minute of

arc of longitude measured on the equator. This is calculated to be
6087.2 feet or 1854.567 meters.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Cable
A nautical unit of measurement equal to one tenth of a nautical mile.
Do not confuse it with the anchor “cable” which is a heavy chain
attached to the anchor.

Knot
The term “knot”, in reference to currents, is defined as one nautical
mile per hour and is used to measure speed. A nautical mile is slightly
more than a standard mile. 1 nautical mile = 1.15 miles = 1.85
kilometers. 1 knot = 1.15 miles per hour = 1.85 kilometers per hour.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Meridian is a semi - Great Circle on the Earth’s surface which also
passes through both Poles. A north-south reference line, particularly a
great circle through the geographical poles of the earth. The term
usually refers to the upper branch, the half, from pole to pole, which
passes through a given place; the other half being called the lower
branch.

Prime meridian
The prime meridian is the line drawn north to south at 0° (0 degrees)
longitude. Sentences: The prime meridian divides Earth into the
Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere. The prime meridian
is at 0° (0 degrees) longitude. The Greenwich Meridian (0° Longitude)
is also called the Prime Meridian.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Latitude
The Latitude of a place on the Earth’s surface (also called the Geodetic,
Geographical or True Latitude) is the angle that the perpendicular at that
place makes with the plane of the Equator and is measured from 0° to
90° North or South. They are named after the angle created by a line
connecting the latitude and the center of the Earth, and the line
connecting the equator and the center of the Earth. Latitudes south of
the equator are valued negative.

Parallels of Latitude
Other places having the same latitude lie on a small circle, the plane of
which is parallel to that of the equator.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Difference of Latitude
The difference in latitude (Dlat) between two places is the angular
distance between the parallels of latitude passing through each place.
When the two places are situated on the same side of the equator, i.e.
on the same hemisphere; both North or both South, the larger latitude is
subtracted to the smaller latitude and when the two places are situated
on either side of the equator, the two latitudes are added. If the latitude
of the destination is situated to the north of the departure point then the
“Dlat” is named north. If it is south, it is named south.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Longitude
It is the angular distance between the meridian passing through a
position on the earth’s surface and the Greenwich meridian(also known
as Prime meridian), measured east or west (left or right) of the
Greenwich meridian from the center of the earth, along the plane of the
equator is called longitude. Longitude is measured by imaginary lines
that run around Earth vertically (up and down) and meet at the North
and South Poles. These lines are known as meridians. Each meridian
measures one arc degree of longitude. Longitudes west of Greenwich
(Prime ) Meridian are valued negative.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Difference of Longitudes
The difference of longitudes (Dlo) between two places is the angular
distance between the meridians of longitude passing through each point.
If the two points both lie to the east or west of the Greenwich (Prime)
meridian, then the smaller longitude is subtracted from the larger. If they
are on opposite sides of the Prime meridian, then they are added. If the
longitude of the destination is to the east of the departure point, then the
Dlo is named east. If it is to the west, then it is named west.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Great Circle
Simply put, it is the shortest distance between two points. Say cut a
sphere in half then circle that you would have on the flat side would be
the largest that you could obtain from that sphere. This is a very
important observation for the navigator since the center of the circle
passes through the center of the sphere, any section of the circle
passing between two points on the surface of the sphere is the shortest
distance between the two points. It is the largest possible circle that can
be drawn around a sphere. If you cut a sphere at one of its great circles,
you'd cut it exactly in half. A great circle has the same circumference
and the same center point as its sphere. Thus, Longitudes are
considered as Halves of Great Circles
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Poles of a Great Circle
The line through the center of the sphere perpendicular to the plane of a
great circle meets the sphere in two points are called the poles of the
great circle. The poles of the equator are the north pole N = (0, 0,1) and
the south pole S = (0, 0, —1).

Small Circle
When the plane of a circle on the surface of a sphere does not pass through
the center of the sphere and does not divide the Earth into two equal parts,
the section is known as a “Small Circle”. Although “small circles” may actually
be quite large, they are always smaller than any great circle of the earth.
Parallels of Latitudes are regarded as “small circles”.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Spherical Angle
The angle generated by the intersection between two great circle arcs is
the angle between their planes is called spherical angle. The spherical
angle can also be defined as the angle between the tangents to both
arcs of great circle in their intersection point.

Spherical Triangle
Navigation by sea is based upon spherical trigonometry(PZX triangle).
The exact position of a ship can be determined by the angle the
celestial body makes with the horizon, measured at a precise time. The
angle and precise time measurements are compared with tables of
known values.
1.4 Definitions - What is What?!
Supplemental Videos

S1_V1_Coordinate System Jargon_ geoid, datum, projection

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z41Dt7_R180

S1_V2_The Earth and the Geographic Coordinates

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5jni8uZcyLg&t=5s

S1_V3_Ask Us Anything_ The Nautical Mile

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZiD1bLnFxg
Text Books Required Reading

Learning Activity 1.2:

● T1 American Practical Navigator by Bowditch (part 104-107)

● T2 An Introduction to Coastal Navigation, 2002 Ed (Chap 1)

● T4 T.K. Joseph The Principles and Practice of Navigation 1st Ed

(Chap 1)

● T16 Practical Navigation 2nd Ed Nutshell Series Book 1(Chap 1 - 3)

R References

● R1 International Convention on Standards of Training Certification

and Watchkeeping for Seafarers STCW 1978

● R9 Assembly resolution A.280(VIII) – Recommendations on

Performance Standards for Gyro-Compasses

● R10 Assembly resolution A-382(X) – Magnetic Compasses_ Carriage

and Performance Standards

● R11 Assembly resolution A.424(XI) – Performance Standards for

Gyro-Compasses
R References

● T1 American Practical Navigator by Bowditch (part 104-107)

● T2 An Introduction to Coastal Navigation, 2002 Ed (Chap 1)

● T4 T.K. Joseph The Principles and Practice of Navigation 1st Ed

(Chap 1)

● T16 Practical Navigation 2nd Ed Nutshell Series Book 1(Chap 1 - 3)