RAT292 Sensors and

Actuators for robotics

Dr.Sreepriya.S
Dept. of Robotics and Automation
 Module I (8 Hours)
• Requirement of sensors in robots used in industry, agriculture, medical field, transportation,
military, space and undersea exploration, human-robot interactions, robot control, robot
navigation, tele-operational robot etc.

• Proprioceptive or Internal sensors:Position sensors- encoders- linear, rotary, incremental

linear encoder, absolute linear encoder, Incremental rotary encoder, absolute rotary encoder;
potentiometers; LVDTs; velocity sensors-optical encoders, tacho-generator, Hall effect sensor, ,
acceleration sensors ,Heading sensors- Compass, Gyroscope sensor, IMU, GPS, real-time
differential GPS, active optical and RF beacons, ultrasonic beacons, reflective beacons; Force
sensors-strain gauge based and Piezo electric based, Torque sensors- Numerical Problems;
Electronic skin, micro- cantilevers; Block schematic representations; Interpreting typical
manufacturer’s data sheet of internal sensors; Examples - the use of Proprioceptive sensors in
robots
Sensors in robots
Robots are programmable machines which interact with the
physical world via sensors and actuators, and can be made to work
autonomously or semi-autonomously.

• The sensor is a physical device, that senses a physical quantity

and then converts it into signals which can be read by an
instrument or the user.
• A TRANSDUCER is a device, which transforms energy from one
form to another.
• Sensor and transducer are used interchangeably to denote a
sensor transducer unit.
Why Robots need Sensors
• During the design of a robot it is important to choose the accurate
sensors to enable it to be aware of its environment and perform
required tasks. Robots without sensors are simply constant
automation doing the same repetitive task.

• Robotic sensing gives the robots sensing capabilities so that the

robots are more human-like. Thus, the robots can see, touch, hear
and move.
Why do robots need
sensors?
What is the angle of my arm?



internal information
Why do robots need sensors?
Where am I?

localization
Why do robots need sensors?
Will I hit anything?

Obstacle
Detection
Sensing for specific tasks
Where is the cropline?

Autonomous
harvesting
Sensing for specific tasks
Where is the face?

Face detection & tracking

Other Functions of Robotic Sensors
• Safe Operation : Protection of human workers
who work in vicinity of the Robot.
• Interlocking : This is required to coordinate the
sequence of operations on a component. For eg:
Unless turning is done on a component ,it should not
be transferred to the conveyor.
• Inspection: It is essential for quality control. Eg is
the use of vision system to measure the length of a
component to check whether it is within acceptable
tolerance or not.
• Part Configuration: If a robot is used to weld 2
parts of a car body, the sensors must identify the
correct configurations ie position and orientation of
the parts, before welding.
Common robotic sensors and their functions
Sensors Functions
Touch Sensing an object’s presence or absence
Vision Detecting edges, corners, holes
Force Measuring force along a single axis
Sound Presence, frequency and intensity of sound
Light Presence, color and intensity of light
Proximity Non-contact detection of an object
Physical orientation Co-ordinating the objects in space
Infrared wavelength (IR) or ultraviolet (UV) rays,
Heat
temperature, magnitude and directions
Chemicals Presence, identity and concentration of chemicals
Various field of operation of Robotic Sensors

• Industry, Agriculture : Two-dimensional visual sensors, three-

dimensional visual sensors, force/torque sensors and collision
detection sensors are the most often utilised sensors for industrial
robots.
• Medical field : Medical robots are robotic machines utilized in
health sciences. They can be categorized into three main classes:
• (1) medical devices including surgery robotic devices, diagnosis and
drug delivery devices.
• (2) assistive robotics including wearable robots and rehabilitation
devices, and
• (3) robots mimicking the human body including prostheses, artificial
organs, and body-part simulators.
Various field of operation of Robotic Sensors

• Military: The majority of military robots are tele-operated and not

equipped with weapons;
• they are used for reconnaissance, surveillance, sniper detection,
neutralizing explosive devices, etc. Current robots that are equipped
with weapons are tele-operated so they are not capable of taking lives
autonomously.
• Mobile robots detect and explode in-ground mines or improvised explosive
devices.” These same mobile robotic systems are used for neutralizing or
exploding forgotten ordnance and mines after conflicts cease.
• Transportation: The gyroscope and accelerometer sensors are used in
Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) to determine the vehicle’s parameters
such as vehicle position, orientation, and velocity. INS are used in
conjunction with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) to improve accuracy.
Various field of operation of Robotic Sensors

• Space: There are many different types of sensors that meet these
requirements which are employed in space and include laser
communication terminals, thermistor sensors, thermocouples,
thermopiles, thin film sensors, and RTD sensors.

• Undersea exploration: Under water robot uses the sensing

technologies such as underwater acoustic sensing, underwater optical
sensing, underwater magnetic sensing, and underwater bionic sensing.
Human Robot Interaction
• Human–robot interaction is the study of interactions
between humans and robots. It is often referred as HRI by
researchers. Human–robot interaction is a multidisciplinary
field with contributions from human–computer
interaction, artificial intelligence, robotics, natural-language
understanding, design, and psychology.
• The origin of HRI as a discrete problem was stated by 20th-
century author Isaac Asimov in 1941, in his novel I, Robot.
• He states the Three Laws of Robotics as:
1.A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction,
allow a human being to come to harm.
2.A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except
where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
3.A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.
 Robotic Control
• Robotic control is the system that contributes to the
movement of robots. This involves the mechanical
aspects and programmable systems that makes it
possible to control robots.

• 4 Types of Control
• Point to point control
The PTP robot is capable of moving from one point to
another point. The locations are recorded in the control
memory. Eg: Spot welding, hole drilling, Machine
loading and unloading , Assembly operations
 Robotic Control
• Continuous path control
The CP robot is capable of performing movements along the
controlled path. With CP from one control, the robot can stop at
any specified point along the controlled path. Eg: spray painting
finishing, gluing
• Controlled path control
• In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can generate
paths of different geometry such as straight lines, circles, and
interpolated curves with a high degree of accuracy.
• Stop to stop control
• It is open loop system. Position and velocity unknown to
controller. On/off commands stored as valve states
Robot Navigation
• Smooth and safe navigation of mobile robot through
cluttered environment from start position to goal
position with following safe path and producing optimal
path length is the main aim of mobile robot navigation.
• several techniques are explored by researchers for
robot navigation path planning.
 tele-operational robot
• Teleoperations, also called telerobotics, is the technical term
for the remote control of a robot. In a telerobotic system, a
human operator controls the movements of the robot from
some distance away.
SENSOR SELECTION
• In using sensors, one must first decide what the sensor is
supposed to do and what result one expects.
• A sensor detects the quantity to be measured (the measurand).
• The transducer converts the detected measurand into a
convenient form for subsequent use, e.g., for control or actuation.
• The transducer signal may be filtered, amplified and suitably
modified.
 SENSOR SELECTION
• The selection of a correct sensor for the application in hand
depends on the understanding of its performance characteristics
such as physical size, input requirements, outputs, life, cost, etc.
• These characteristics are listed in their datasheet.
• Sensor manufacturing community have defined these
characteristics depending on the sensing .
• The sensor characteristics may be classified as design, electrical,
static and dynamic characteristics.
 Sensor Classification

Based on the type of signals: Analog or Digital sensor

• In analog sensors, with the variation of input there is a
continuous variation of output, whereas in case of digital
sensors, the output is of digital or discrete nature.
• Potentiometers, tacho-generators located at the joints and
strain-gauge-based sensors located at the end-effector of
a robot fall in the category of analog sensors, whereas
encoders, located at the robot's joints, are digital sensors.
Sensor Classification
Based on what they sense: Internal or external sensor
• Internal Sensors: used to measure internal state of a robot,
i.e., its position, velocity, acceleration, etc., at a particular
instant Depending on the quantities it measures, a sensor
is termed as the position, velocity, acceleration, or force
sensor.
• External Sensors: External Sensors are used to learn about
Robot’s environment. They can be classified as Contact
type and non contact type sensors
Sensor Classification
 Sensor Characteristics
• The characteristics of a sensor related to steady state output
when constant input is applied is known as static
characteristics.
• Dynamic characteristics are related to response or output of
the sensor for time varying input. The input signals can be
step, ramp, impulse, sinusoidal.
• The characteristics of sensors can also be classified as input,
transfer and output characteristics.
 1. Range
• Range or span is a measure of the difference between the minimum and
maximum values of its input or output (response) so as to maintain a
required level of output accuracy.
• It is defined as the limits between which inputs can vary.
• Span is maximum value minus the minimum value of the input
• Eg: strain gauge might be able to measure output values over the range
from 0.1 to 10 Newtons
• The range of LM35 is -550C to 1500C, and span is 200 0C
 2. Sensitivity
• It is the ability of the measuring instrument to respond to changes in
measured quantity
• Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change of output to change in input.
• Eg., if a movement of 0.025 mm in a linear potentiometer causes an output
voltage by 0.02 volt then the sensitivity is 0.8 volts per mm.
• It is sometimes used to indicate the smallest change in input that will be
observable as a change in output.
• Usually, maximum sensitivity that provides a linear and accurate signal is
desired
• In the case of LM35, output is voltage, sensitivity is defined as 10 mV/0C.
3. Linearity
• Perfect linearity would allow output versus input to be
plotted as a straight line on a graph paper.
• Linearity is a measure of the constancy of the ratio of
output to input.
• In the form of an equation, it is y = mx where x is input
and y is output, and m is a constant.
• If m is a variable, the relationship is not linear.
• Linearity error is the deviation of the sensor output curve from a
specified straight line over a desired range.
• This linearity error is also defined as non-linearity
4. Response Time
• Response time is the time required for a sensor to respond
completely to a change in input.
• The response time of a system with sensors is the combination of
the responses of all individual components, including the sensor.
• An important aspect in selecting an appropriate sensor is to
match its time response to that of the complete system.
5. Bandwidth
• It determines the maximum speed or frequency
at which an instrument associated with a sensor
or otherwise is capable of operating.
• High bandwidth implies faster speed of response.
• Instrument bandwidth should be several times
greater than the maximum frequency of interest
in the input signals.
6. Accuracy
• Accuracy is a measure of the difference between
the measured and actual values.
• Accuracy describes ‘closeness to true values.’
• An accuracy of ±0.025 mm means that under all
circumstances considered, the measured value
will be within 0.025 mm of the actual value.
• In positioning a robot and its end-effector, verification of this
level of accuracy would require careful measurement of the
position of the end-effector with respect to the base reference
location with an overall accuracy of 0.025 mm under all
conditions of temperature, acceleration, velocity, and loading.
• Precision-measuring equipment, carefully calibrated against
secondary standards, would be necessary to verify this
accuracy.
7. Repeatability and Precision
• Repeatability is a measure of the difference in value between two
successive measurements under the same conditions.
• As long as the forces, temperature, and other parameters have not
changed, one would expect the successive values to be the same,
however poor the accuracy is.
• It is the ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when the same
measured quantity is applied repeatedly under the same
environmental conditions.
• The repeatability is defined for a specific value of input or measurand.
Precision
• Precision, which means the ‘closeness of agreement’ between
independent measurements of a quantity under the same conditions
without any reference to the true value.
• The number of divisions on the scale of the measuring device generally
affects the consistency of repeated measurement and, therefore, the
precision.
Interpretation of accuracy and precision
8. Resolution and Threshold
• Resolution is a measure of the number of measurements
within a range from minimum to maximum.
• It is also used to indicate the value of the smallest increment
of value that is observable,
• Threshold is a particular case of resolution.
• Threshold is defined as the minimum value of input below
which no output can be detected.
9. Hysteresis
• It is defined as the change
in the input/ output curve
when the direction of
motion changes.

• The effect of obtaining different output for the same input when
input is increasing and decreasing.
• This behaviour is common in loose components such as gears,
which have backlash, and in magnetic devices with ferromagnetic
media, and others.
10. Type of Output
• Output can be in the form of a mechanical movement, an electrical
current or voltage, a pressure, or liquid level, a light intensity, or another
form.
• To be useful, it must be converted to another form, as in the LVDT
(Linear Variable Differential Transducer) or strain gauges.
11. Size and Weight
• Size and weight are usually important physical characteristics of
sensors.
• If the sensor is to be mounted on the robot hand or arm, it becomes a
part of the mass that must be accelerated and decelerated by the
drive motors of the wrist and arm.
• So, it directly affects the performance of the robot.
• It is a challenge to sensor designers to reduce size and weight.
• An early wrist force-torque sensor, for example, was about 125 mm in
diameter but was reduced to about 75 mm in diameter through
careful redesign.
12. Environmental
Conditions
• Power requirement and its easy availability should be
considered.
• Besides, conditions like chemical reactions including
corrosion, extreme temperatures, light, dirt accumulation,
electromagnetic field, radioactive environments, shock and
vibrations, etc., should be taken into account while selecting
a sensor or considering how to shield them.
13. Reliability and Maintainability
• Reliability is of major importance in all robot applications.
• It can be measured in terms of Mean Time To Failure (MTTF) as the
average number of hours between failures that cause some part of
the sensor to become inoperative.
• In industrial use, the total robot system is expected to be available
as much as 98 or 99% of the working days.
• Since there are hundreds of components in a robot system, each one
must have a very high reliability.
• Some otherwise good sensors cannot stand the daily environmental
stress and, therefore, cannot be used with robots.
• Part of the requirement for reliability is ease of
maintenance.
• A sensor that can be easily replaced does not have to be as
reliable as one that is hidden in the depths of the robot.
• Maintainability is a measure in terms of Mean Time To
Repair (MTTR)
14. Interfacing
• Interfacing of sensors with signal-conditioning devices
and the controller of the robot is often a determining
factor in the usefulness of sensors.
• Nonstandard plugs or requirements for nonstandard
voltages and currents may make a sensor too complex
and expensive to use.
• The signals from a sensor must be compatible with
other equipment being used if the system is to work
properly.
15. Others
• Other aspects like
• initial cost,
• maintenance cost,
• cost of disposal and replacement,
• reputation of manufacturers,
• operational simplicity,
• ease of availability of the sensors and their spares
• should be taken into account.
• In many occasions, these nontechnical considerations become the
ultimate deciding factor in the selection of sensors for an
application.
Internal Sensors
• They are used to measure the internal state of a robot ie Position, Velocity,
Acceleration etc.
• Depending on the quantities it measures , a sensor is termed as position , velocity ,
acceleration or force sensor.

External Sensors
• External Sensors are used to learn about Robot’s environment.
• They can be classified as Contact type and non contact type sensors.
• Thank You