Chapter one

History and overview of operating system

History of operating system
 First generation: 1945 – 1955
• Vacuum tubes
• Plug boards
Second generation: 1955 – 1965
• Transistors
• Batch systems
Third generation: 1965 – 1980
• Integrated circuits
• Multiprogramming
Fourth generation: 1980 – present
• Large scale integration
• Personal computers -DOS
1.2 Definition and Objectives of an Operating System(OS)
• Operating system(OS) is system program that controls execution of application
programs.
• System program that acts as an interface between the hardware and its users
• Hardware: consists of CPU, memory, chips, boards, disks, a keyboard,
monitor, printers, and similar physical objects.
• Computers have two modes of operation:
kernel mode ( also called supervisor mode)
• Input/output runs in Kernel mode
User mode.
• User interface program, shell (text based), Graphical User Interface (GUI) and
gooey (GUI that uses icons) runs in User mode.
• User interface program allows the user to start other programs, such as a Web
browser, email reader, or music player,
• although it uses the operating system to get its work done
Basic functions of an operating system include:
• Booting: An operating system manages the startup of a device.
• Memory management: An operating system coordinates computer
applications and allocates space to different programs installed in the
computer.
• Data security: An operating system protects your data from cyber attacks.
• Loading and execution: An operating system starts and executes a program.
• Drive/disk management: An operating system manages computer drives
and divides disks.
• Device control: An operating system enables you to allow or block access to
devices.
• User interface: This part of an operating system, also known as UI, allows
users to enter and receive information.
• Process management: The operating system allocates space to enable
computer processes, such as storing and sharing information.
OS used to allocate resources:
• Allocation of the Processors (CPU), memories, printers and I/O devices
among the various programs wanting them.
OS used to manage resources:
• Manage resources such as processors, main memory, disks, printers, a
keyboard, a mouse, a display, network interfaces, input/output devices, files,
security etc.
• Includes multiplexing (sharing) resources in two different ways: in time and
in space.
• Time multiplexing: programs or users take turns using it. Examples:
• Running multiple programs on a single CPU
• sharing a single printer for multiple printing jobs
• Space multiplexing: each process gets part of the resource. Examples:
• dividing main memory among several running programs
• Allocating disk space and keeping track of who is using which disk blocks.
1.3 Objectives of OS
Convenience(Primary goal)– Top Down View – Virtual Machine
• Extending the real hardware and acting as a Virtual Machine
• Hiding the truth about the hardware from the user
• Providing the user a convenient interface which is easier to program
Efficiency (Secondary goal) – Bottom Up View – Resource Manager
• Providing an orderly and controlled allocation of resources
• Improving resource utilization
Ability to Evolve
• Adaptability to new changes
• Hardware upgrades/New types of hardware
• Need of new services
• Easy to fix latent errors
1.4 Types of Operating system

• Simple batch processing

• Spooling batch processing
• Multi-programmed batch processing
• Timesharing
• Multiprocessing
• Real time processing
• Networked processing
• Distributed processing
 Simple batch processing
• To run jobs
• Users submit jobs on cards
• Operator batches jobs together into a tape inside the input room
• Operator rewinds the input tape and brings it to machine room
• Monitor, a special system program in the system tape, runs each job sequentially
• Output is written onto output tape and is brought to output room
• Output is printed offline in the output room
• Each job is structured using JCL (Job Control Language)
• To switch control back and forth between job and monitor
• To automate job set-up (loading source code, compilers, object code etc)
• Monitor or controls sequence of events
• Relies on some hardware features
• Memory protection
• Timer
• Processor modes
• Interrupts
• Improve machine utilization
• Handle scheduling problem
• Reduce set-up time
Drawbacks
• Large turn-around time
• Large CPU idle time on heavily I/O bound jobs
• Large CPU idle time due to slower speed of I/O devices compared to CPU speed
• CPU idle time between batches of jobs: the computer still needs to read the deck
of cards before it begins to execute the batch of jobs.
• efficiency is less
• throughput is less
• it is not interactive
Spooling Batch Processing
• Adds up Spooling technique to simple batch processing
• Spooling - Simultaneous Peripheral Operation Online
• It is the ability to read jobs/print job outputs while the processor executes jobs
• Read jobs – from cards to disk
• Print job outputs – from disk to printer
• Used in input and output operations
• With spooling, whenever a running job finished, the OS could load a new job from disk into
the now-empty partition and run it
• Spooling is the first attempt of multiprogramming
• Avoids CPU idle time between batches of jobs
• Improve turn-around time: Output of a job was available as soon as the job completed,
rather than only after all jobs in the current cycle were finished.
Drawbacks
• Large turn-around time
• Large CPU idle time on heavily I/O bound jobs
Multi-programmed (Extension of Batch Processing)
• Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same
time, is referred as multiprogramming.
• Multiprogramming
• Whenever jobs go to I/O device CPU can take other jobs and process
it ,this is called multiprogramming
• Multiple jobs are loaded in a partitioned memory
• Processor runs the jobs by cycling through them in some order
• Processor works on each job for a specified period of time
• The system is responsible for
• Starting user jobs
• Spooling operations
• I/O for user jobs
• Switching between user jobs
• Ensuring proper protection
• Relies on some hardware features
• Memory protection
• Timer
• Processor modes
• Interrupts
• DMA (Direct Memory Access)
• OS/360 – the first multi-programmed batch system designed for IBM System/360
• Improve machine utilization
• Resemble a modern operating system
• CPU use efficiently( we cannot keep the CPU idle)
Drawbacks
• Long response time: the time between submitting a job and getting back the
output was often took several hours.
• Poor interactivity between programmer and the program
Multitasking (Timesharing/Time-slicing)

• Variant of multiprogramming in which each user has an online terminal

• Processor time is shared among multiple users

• Its main objective is getting quick response time

• The computer provides fast, interactive service to a number of users

• CTSS – the first timesharing system developed for IBM 709 and later to IBM
7094

• CTSS supported 32 users at a time

• Minimizes response time

• Support many users simultaneously

Difference between multiprogramming and timesharing
• Multiprogramming
• Its objective is to maximize processor use
• JCL commands are source of directives to the OS
• Designed to keep the processor & I/O devices simultaneously busy
• Timesharing
• Its objective is to minimize response time
• Terminal commands are sources of directives to the OS
• Designed to be responsive to the needs of individual user
Drawbacks of multiprogramming and timesharing
• Problems related with multiple programs in memory interfering with each other
• Problems related with multiple interactive users accessing the same file system
• Problems related with multiple programs competing for the same resource.
Multiprocessing
• A multiprocessor system consists of several processors that share a common
physical memory.
• Multiprocessor system provides higher computing power and speed.
• In multiprocessor system all processors operate under single operating system.
• Multiplicity of the processors and how they do act together are transparent to the
others.
• Enhanced performance
• If possible, system divides task into many subtasks and then these subtasks can be
executed in parallel in different processors.
• Instead of having one CPU we will have more CPU in the single computer.
• Used as batch processing, multitasking and multiprocessing
• less cost and more efficiency
• throughput (the number of jobs which are going to be finished per unit time) can
be improved
• Reliability increase
Real-time processing
• Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems.
• In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
• The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of
time to ensure correct performance.
• You have given some jobs and jobs have some deadlines, you are supposed to
finish the jobs in these deadlines is called real time.
• Programs are guaranteed to have an upper bound on tasks that they carry out
Usually it is desired that the upper bound be very small
• Severely constrained by the timing requirements
• Usually used in dedicated/special purpose computers
Networked Processing
• Consist of multiple computers that are networked together
• Each machine runs its own local OS and has its own local users
• Not fundamentally different from single computer OSs
• Users are aware of existence of multiple computers
• Additional features needed by network operating systems
• Network interface controller
• Some low level software to drive it
• Programs for remote login & remote file access
Distributed Processing
• Runs on a multi-computer system: collection of computers, each with its own memory,
storage device and other I/O modules
• Useful for sharing of the workload among the different computers
• Existence of multiple computers is transparent to the user: It appears as a uniprocessor
system
• It differs in critical ways from uniprocessor OSs
1.5 Computer Hardware's Review
Processors (CPU)
• The CPU cycle or Clock Cycle
• Fetches instructions from memory
• Decodes the instruction
• Executes them.
• E.g. when we say that a computer runs at 2 GHz we mean that to execute one
instruction it takes the computer 1/2 Nano-seconds.
• CPU design: pipeline and superscalar CPU
A. Pipeline CPU:A CPU might have separate fetch, decode, and execute units,
so that while it is executing instruction n, it could also be decoding instruction
n+1 and fetching instruction n+2.
B. Superscalar CPU: advanced than a pipeline design.
• Multiple execution units are present, for example, one for integer
arithmetic, one for floating-point arithmetic, and one for Boolean
operations.
• several instructions can be initiated simultaneously and executed
independently.
• Two or more instructions are fetched at once, decoded, and dumped
into a holding buffer until they can be executed.
Memory
• The memory system is constructed as a hierarchy of layers. The top
layers have higher speed.
A device driver
• Every device connected in the computer has to be recognized by the operating
system.
• Device driver is a software program written by device windows to let the device
communicate with the operating system.
Booting Computer
• Modern operating systems are designed to run on machines with a wide range of
different hardware.
• Booting - starting a computer by loading the kernel.
• Bootstrap program - code stored in ROM that is able to locate the kernel, load it into
memory, and start its execution.
• Once the kernel is loaded it must identify all the hardware present in the machine and
load relevant device drivers.
• Firmware used to hold initial boot code
1.6 Operating System Services and System Calls
• The operating system provides services in the following areas:
Program Execution
• Handles all the setup operations needed by programs before they start to run.
• Loading the program, Initializing I/O devices and files and preparing other resources
needed by the program.
• Operating system loads a program into memory and executes the program.
• The program must be able to end its execution, either normally or abnormally.
I/O Operation
• Each I/O device requires its own peculiar set of instructions and control signals for
operation.
• The operating system provides a uniform interface that hides these details so that the
programmer can access the devices using simple reads and writes.
• I/O means any file or any specific I/O device.
• Program may require any I/O device while running.
• So operating system must provide the required I/O.
File-system manipulation
• Program capability to read, write, create, and delete files.
• Program needs to read a file or write a file.
• The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.
Communication:
• Data transfer between two processes is required for some time.
• Processes are on the one computer or on different computer but connected through
computer network.
Error detection
• Potential system errors
• Hardware related
• Memory error
• Device failure or malfunction
• Software related
• Arithmetic overflow
• Attempt to access forbidden memory location
• Inability of the operating system to grant request of an app.
• The operating system provides response that clears the error condition with the
least impact on running application:
• Ending the program that caused the error

• Retrying the operation

• Reporting the error to the application

• Ensure correct computing by detecting errors in the CPU and memory hardware,
in I/O devices, or in user programs.

• Error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory hardware.

• The operating system constantly needs to be aware of possible errors.

• It should take the appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.
Resource Allocation:
• If there are more than one user or jobs running at the same time, then resources
must be allocated to each of them.
• Operating system manages different types of resources require special allocation
code, i.e. main memory, CPU cycles and file storage.
• There are some resources which require only general request and release code
• For allocating CPU, CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of
CPU.
• CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.
• CPU scheduling routines consider the speed of the CPU, number of available
registers and other required factors.
Accounting
• Collects usage statistics for various resources
• Monitor performance parameters such as response time
• Accounting information is useful For future enhancement
• In tuning the system to improve performance
• For billing purposes (in multi-user environment)
• Logs of each user must be kept.
• It is also necessary to keep record of which user how much and what kinds
of computer resources.
• This log is used for accounting purposes.
• The accounting data may be used for statistics or for the billing.
• It also used to improve system efficiency.
Shell( program execution )
• Command interpreter that acts as a primary interface between a user sitting at its
terminal and the operating system
• It is a process (running program) that reads commands
• It is not part of the operating system but it makes heavy use of many operating
system features
• How the shell works?
• When any user logs in, a shell is started up
• The shell displays a prompt which tells the user that it is ready to accept a
command
• When the user enters a command, the shell creates a child process that runs the
program for the corresponding command
• When the child process is running, the shell waits for it to terminate
• When the child process finishes, the shell displays the prompt and tries to read
the next command
1.7 operating system structure
• Size and complexity of operating systems has been growing over the years
• More and more features have been added
• Hardware has become more capable and versatile
• The size and complexity has created some major problems
• Late delivery
• Latent bugs
• Performance
• The essence of operating system structure is to manage the complexity of the
software
• Operating system structure refers to the internal organization of the software
• Four types of OS structures:
• Monolithic system
• Layered system
• Virtual machines
• Client server system
Monolithic Systems
• Has no structure
• Collection of procedures
• Each procedure has a well-defined interface (in terms of parameters & results)
• Each procedure can call any other one: No information hiding
• Composed of main program, service procedures and utility procedures
• Has one big monolithic kernel
• Implemented as a single process
• To get service:
• User program puts the parameters in well-defined places (registers/stack)
• A special trap instruction known as kernel/supervisor call is invoked
• Switches the machine from user mode to kernel mode
• Transfers control to the OS
• OS determines the required service
• OS calls the required service procedure
• Control is returned to user program
Layered/Hierarchical Systems
• Organizes the system as a series of levels (layers).
• Each level performs a related subset of functions
• Each level relies on the next lower level
• To perform more primitive functions
• To conceal the details of those functions
• Each level provides service to the next higher level
• Levels are defined in a way that changes in one level does not require changes
in other levels
• The first layered system was called THE and has 6 layers
• Layer 0: Process allocation and multiprogramming
• Processor allocation
• Process switching
• Layer 1: Memory and drum management
• Allocate space for processes
• Layer 2: Operator process communication
• Handle communication between process and operator console
• Layer 3: I/O management
• Manages I/O devices and buffering information streams to and from them
• Layer 4: User programs
• Layer 5: Operator
Virtual Machines
• The essence of virtual machine systems is to separate the two functions of
timesharing systems
• Multiprogramming
• Extending the machine with a more convenient interface
• VM/370
• Virtual machine system developed for IBM/360s
• Originally called CP/CMS (conversional monitor system)
• Radically different from TSS/360, official timesharing system for IBM/360s,
which was delivered late
• Virtual Machine Monitor
• The heart of VM/370
• Runs on the bare hardware
• Provides multiprogramming & several virtual machines (CPMs) to the next
layer up
• The virtual machines are not extended machines but they are exact
copies of the bare hardware
• Each virtual machine can run any operating systems
Client-Server Model
• Most OS functions are implemented in user processes
• Moves the code up into higher layers and leaves a minimal kernel
(microkernel)
• User process (called client process) sends a request to a server process,
which does the work and sends back the answer
• All the kernel does is handling the communication between clients and
servers
Advantages
• Manageability (flexibility and easy implementation)
• The OS is broken down into parts
• Each part handles only one function of the system
• Each part becomes small and manageable
• Better system protection
• The whole machine will not be down easily since all servers run in user mode,
i.e. servers do not have direct access to the hardware
• Adaptability to distributed systems
• Client need not know where its request is handled: locally or on remote
machine