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Knowledge Representation-October 16

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Sushil Azad
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18 views19 pages

Knowledge Representation-October 16

Uploaded by

Sushil Azad
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Knowledge Representation

Prof. Sushil Kumar Azad

School of Engineering & Technology


K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram (Haryana)
To solve complex problems c\encountered in AI, we need both a large amount of
knowledge and some mechanism for manipulating that knowledge to create
solutions to new problems

In all variety of knowledge representations , we deal with two kinds of entities.

A. Facts: Truths in some relevant world. These are the things we want to represent.

B. Representations of facts in some chosen formalism .

These are things we will actually be able to manipulate .


School of Engineering & Technology
K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram (Haryana)
The facts and representations are linked with two-way mappings. This link is
called representation mappings.
The forward representation mapping maps from facts to representations.
The backward representation mapping goes the other way, from representations
to facts.
Knowledge and Representation are two distinct entities. They play central but
distinguishable roles in the intelligent system.
 Knowledge is a description of the world. It determines a system’s competence by what
it knows.
 Moreover, Representation is the way knowledge is encoded. It defines a system’s
performance in doing something.
 Different types of knowledge require different kinds of representation.
School of Engineering & Technology
K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram (Haryana)
School of Engineering & Technology
K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram (Haryana)
The Knowledge Representation models/mechanisms are
often based on:
 Logic
 Rules
 Frames
 Semantic Net

School of Engineering & Technology


K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram (Haryana)
Knowledge is categorized into two major types:

1. Tacit corresponds to “informal” or “implicit“


 Exists within a human being;
 It is embodied.
 Difficult to articulate formally.
 Difficult to communicate or share.
 Moreover, Hard to steal or copy.
 Drawn from experience, action, subjective insight
2. Explicit formal type of knowledge, Explicit
 Exists outside a human being;
 It is embedded.
 Can be articulated formally.
 Also, Can be shared, copied, processed and stored.
 So, Easy to steal or copy
 Drawn from the artifact of some type as a principle, procedure, process,
concepts.
Framework of Knowledge Representation

The computer requires a well-defined problem description to process and provide


a well defined acceptable solution.

Moreover, To collect fragments of knowledge we need first to formulate a


description in our spoken language and then represent it in formal language so
that computer can understand.
Also, The computer can then use an algorithm to compute an answer
The steps are:
 The informal formalism of the problem takes place first.
 It then represented formally and the computer produces an output.
 This output can then represented in an informally described solution that user
understands or checks for consistency.
Knowledge Representation Framework

The Problem solving requires,


 Formal knowledge
representation, and
 Moreover, Conversion of
informal knowledge to a
formal knowledge that is the
conversion of implicit
knowledge to explicit
knowledge
Properties of KR:

A good knowledge representation enables fast and accurate access to knowledge


and understanding of the content.
A knowledge representation system should have following properties.
1. Representational Adequacy: The ability to represent all kinds of knowledge that are
needed in that domain.
2. Inferential Adequacy: The ability to manipulate the representational structures to derive new
structures corresponding to new knowledge inferred from old.
3. Inferential Efficiency: The ability to incorporate additional information into the knowledge
structure that can be used to focus the attention of the inference mechanisms in the most
promising direction.
4. Acquisitional Efficiency: The ability to acquire new knowledge using automatic methods
wherever possible rather than reliance on human intervention.
Knowledge Representation Schemes:
Relational Knowledge

The simplest way to represent declarative facts is a set of relations of the same sort
used in the database system.
· Provides a framework to compare two objects based on equivalent attributes.
· Any instance in which two different objects are compared is a relational type of
knowledge.
 The table below shows a simple way to store facts.
 Also, The facts about a set of objects are put systematically in columns.
 This representation provides little opportunity for inference.
 Given the facts, it is not possible to answer a simple question such as: “Who is
the heaviest player?”
 Also, But if a procedure for finding the heaviest player is provided, then these
facts will enable that procedure to compute an answer.
 Moreover, We can ask things like who “bats – left” and “throws – right”.
Inheritable Knowledge

Here the knowledge elements inherit attributes from their parents.

 The knowledge embodied in the design hierarchies found in the functional, physical
and process domains.
 Within the hierarchy, elements inherit attributes from their parents, but in many
cases, not all attributes of the parent elements prescribed to the child elements.
 Also, The inheritance is a powerful form of inference, but not adequate.
 Moreover, The basic KR (Knowledge Representation) needs to augment with
inference mechanism.
 Property inheritance: The objects or elements of specific classes inherit attributes
and
values from more general classes.
 So, The classes organized in a generalized hierarchy.
Boxed nodes — objects and values of attributes of
objects.
Arrows — the point from object to its value.
 This structure is known as a slot and filler
structure, semantic network or a collection of
frames.
The steps to retrieve a value for an attribute of
an instance object:
1. Find the object in the knowledge base
2. If there is a value for the attribute report it
3. Otherwise look for a value of an instance, if none fail
4. Also, Go to that node and find a value for the attribute and
then report it
5. Otherwise, search through using is until a value is found for
the attribute.
Inferential Knowledge

This knowledge generates new information from the given information.


 This new information does not require further data gathering form source but does
require analysis of the given information to generate new knowledge.
 Example: given a set of relations and values, one may infer other values or relations. A predicate logic (a
mathematical deduction) used to infer from a set of attributes.
Moreover, Inference through predicate logic uses a set of logical operations to relate

 Represent knowledge as formal logic: All dogs have tails ∀x: dog(x) → hastail(x)
individual data.

Advantages:
 A set of strict rules.
 Can use to derive more facts.
 Also, Truths of new statements can be verified.
· Guaranteed correctness.

So, Many inference procedures available to implement standard rules of logic popular in AI systems. e.g
Automated theorem proving.
Procedural Knowledge

A representation in which the control information, to use the knowledge, embedded in


the knowledge itself.
For example, computer programs, directions, and recipes; these indicate specific use or
implementation;

Moreover, Knowledge encoded in some procedures, small programs that know how to
do specific things, how to proceed
Advantages:
 Heuristic or domain-specific knowledge can represent.
 Moreover, Extended logical inferences, such as default reasoning facilitated.
 Also, Side effects of actions may model. Some rules may become false in time.
Keeping track of this in large systems may be tricky.
Disadvantages:

• Completeness — not all cases may represent.

 Consistency — not all deductions may be correct. e.g If we


know that Fred is a bird we might deduce that Fred can fly.
Later we might discover that Fred is an emu.

 Modularity sacrificed. Changes in knowledge base might


have far-reaching effects.

 Cumbersome control information.

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