PROJECTIONS

Projections
• Projections transform points from one 3 space to another 3
space
• Viewing the results on a two dimentional surface requires a
projection from 3 space to 2 space.
• The result is called a Plane geometric projection.
• Projection of objects are formed by the intersection of
lines called projectors with a plane called the projection
plane.
• Projectors are lines from an arbitrary point called center
of projection
 Plane Geometric Projection
• There are two basic types of projections:
– Perspective – distance from COP to PP finite

Parallel – distance from COP to PP infinite

 Properties of parallel projection
• Properties of parallel projection:
– Are actually a kind of affine transformation
• Parallel lines remain parallel
• Ratios are preserved
• Angles not (in general) preserved
– Not realistic looking
– Good for exact measurements,
Most often used in
• CAD,
• architectural drawings,
• etc.,
where taking exact measurement
is important
 Properties of perspective projections

Here are some properties of projective

transformations:
– Lines map to lines
– Parallel lines do not necessarily remain parallel
– Ratios are not preserved
One of the advantages of perspective projection is
that size varies inversely with distance – looks
realistic.
A disadvantage is that we can't judge distances as
exactly as we can with parallel projections.
 Projections
• Parallel
– Distance between projection plane and COP is
infinite
– Less realistic view
• No foreshortening
– Exact measurement and parallelism preserved

7
Perspective Parallel
Parallel Projection

8
 Parallel Projections
• Two types, defined by
– Direction of projection (DOP)
– Viewing (projection) plane normal (VPN)
 Orthographic :DOP and VPN the same (or the reverse)
 Oblique :DOP of VPN not the same (nor the reverse)

9
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
• Used in engineering drawing (such as machine parts)
• Projection plane perpendicular to a principle axis.
• Hard to deduce 3D nature
• Accurately show the correct size and shape of a single plane face
of an object.
• A single orthograpic projection does not provide sufficient
information to visually and practically reconstruct the shape of an
object.
• Multiple orthograpic projections are necessary.
• Most common types
– Front-elevation (projection on z=0)
– Top-elevation (plane-elevation) (projection on y=0)
– Side-elevation(right ) (projection on x=0)
Orthographic Parallel Projections

11
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
• Orthographic projections are projections onto one
of the co-ordinate planes z=0 , x=0 or y=0.
• The matrix for projection
• |Pz|= |Px| = |Py| =
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
•
Axonometric Parallel Projections
Single orthographic projection fails to illustrate the general 3d shape of an
object.
• An axonometric projection is constructed by manipulating the object using
rotation and translations such that atleast3 adjoint faces are shown.
• The result is then projected from center of projection at infinity onto one of
the co-ordinate planes usually z =0 lane.
• Unless a face is parallel to the plane of projection , an axonometric
projection do not show its true shape.
• Relative length of originally parallel lines remain constant i.e parallel lines
are equally foreshortened

13
 Axonometric Projections

.
foreshortening factor
The foreshortening factor is the ratio of
the projected length of a line to its true
length.
There are three axonometric projections of
interest
Trimetric
Dimetric
Isometric

14
 Types of Axonometric Projection

Trimetric : formed by arbitrary rotations in arbitrary order about any or all of

the co-ordinate axes , followed by parallel projection onto the z=0 plane
The foreshortening ratios for each projected principal axis ( x ,y and z) are
different in a general trimetric projection. [ ≠ ≠ ]
A principal axis is used in the sense of an axis or edge of the object originally parallel to
one of the co-ordinate axis.
The foreshortening ratios are obtained by applying the concatenated transformation
matrix to the unit vectors along the principal axis.

{ Xx* Yx* 0 1
= sqrt ( Xx*2 + Yx*2 )
{T} T Xy* Yy* 0 1
1001
U T = sqrt ( Xy*2 + Yy*2 )
} Xz Yz* 0 1
0101
= sqrt ( Xz*2 + Yz*2 )
0011

15
 Types of Axonometric Projection
• DIMETRIC:
• A dimetric projection is a trimetric projection
with two of the foreshortening factors equal ,
the third is arbitrary.
• A dimetric projection is constructed by a
rotation about the y axis through an angle ф
followed by a rotation about the x axis
through an angle θ and projection at infinity
onto the z = 0 plane.
• The resulting transformation is
• T = Ry . Rx . Pz
 T = Ry  Rx  Pz

Cosф 0 -sin ф 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 cosθ sinθ 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
sinф 0 cosф 0 0 -sinθ cosθ 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1

Cosф Sin фsinθ 0 0

0 cosθ 0 0

Sin ф -Cosф sinθ 0 0

0 0 0 1
 T* = Pz * Rx * Ry

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Cosф 0 sin ф 0
0 1 0 0 0 cosθ -sinθ 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 sinθ cosθ 0 -sinф 0 cosф 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

Cosф 0 sin ф 0

sinθsinф cosθ -sinθcosф 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1
The unit vectors on the x,y and z principal axis transformed to
• U* = U . T = 1 0 0 1 Cosф Sin фsinθ 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 cosθ 0 0
0 0 1 1
Sin ф -Cosф sinθ 0 0

0 0 0 1

Cosф Sin фsinθ 0 1

0 cosθ 0 1

U*= Sin ф -Cosф sinθ 0 1

The square of the length of the original unit vector along the x axis
i.e the square of the foreshortening factor is now
Fx2 = (Xx*2 + Yx*2 ) = cos 2 ф+ sin 2 ф sin 2 θ ----------A
Fy 2 = ( Xy*2 + Yy*2 ) = cos 2 θ--------------------------------B
Fz2 = ( Xz*2 + Yz*2 ) = sin 2 ф+ cos 2 ф sin 2 θ --------C
 1

• Equating the foreshortening factors along the x and y

principal axes
• cos 2 ф+ sin 2 ф sin 2 θ = cos 2θ
• Since cos 2 ф = 1- sin 2 ф and cos 2 θ = 1- sin 2 θ ---D
• sin 2 ф = sin 2 θ / 1- sin 2 θ ---------------------------E
• From equ. D and C
• 2 sin 2 θ -2 sin 4 θ – (1 - sin 2 θ) fx2 = 0
• 2 sin 4 θ –(2+ fx2 ) sin 2 θ + fx2 = 0
• Letting u = sin 2 θ yields
• sin 2 θ = fx2 /2 , 1
• Since sin 2 θ = 1 yields an infinite result it is discarded
• θ = sin -1 ( ± fx / sqrt2) and ф = sin -1 ( ± fx / sqrt(2- fx2))
• Result shows that range of foreshortening factor is
0<= fx >=1 each foreshortening factor fx yields four possible
 Isometric : All three foreshortening factors are equal
• From equ. E sin 2 ф = sin 2 θ / 1- sin 2 θ
• Equating equ. B and C sin 2 ф = 1-2 sin 2 θ / 1- sin 2 θ s
• From above equ. sin 2 θ = 1/3 or sinθ = ± sqrt(1/3)
sin 2 ф = (1/3) / (1- 1/3) = 1/2 and ф = ±45⁰
The foreshortening ratio of an isometric Projection is
fx = sqrt(cos 2 θ) = sqrt(2/3) = 0.8165
An isometric projection is an special case of dimetric projection with
Fx = 0.8165
Transforming the unit vector along the x axis
U* = [1 0 0 1] Cosф Sin фsinθ 0 1
0 cosθ 0 1
Sin ф -Cosф sinθ 0 1
Cosф Sin фsinθ 0 1
Cosф Sin фsinθ 0 1
 Angle between projected x axis and the
horizontal is then
• Tan α = Yx* / Xx* = sinф / sinθ = ± sinθ
• Since sinф = cos ф for ф= 45⁰
• Alpha is then
• α = tan -1 ( ±sin 35.26439⁰ ) = ±30⁰
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Lines are scaled (foreshortened) but can find scaling
factors
• Lines preserved but angles are not
– Projection of a circle in a plane not parallel to the projection
plane is an ellipse
• Can see three principal faces of a box-like object
• Some optical illusions possible
– Parallel lines appear to diverge
• Does not look real because far objects are scaled the
same as near objects
• Used in CAD applications

23
 Oblique Projection
Arbitrary relationship between projectors and projection
plane : projectors are perpendicular to the plane of
projections from a center of projection at infinity that
intersect the plane of projection at an oblique angle

24
 Obliuqe Parallel Projections
• Cavalier
– DOP makes 45 degree with projection plane .
– In cavalier projection the foreshortening factors for all
the three principal directions are equal
• Cabinet
– DOP makes angle of cot -1 (1/2) = 63.43 with projection
plane.
– The foreshortening factor for edges perpendicular to
the plane of projection is one half

25
 Obliuqe Parallel Projections
• Cavalier Cabinet

1
1/2
1 1

26
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Can pick the angles to emphasize a particular face
– Architecture: plan oblique, elevation oblique
• Angles in faces parallel to projection plane are preserved
while we can still see “around” side
• In physical world, cannot create with simple camera; possible
with bellows camera( 波纹管相机 ) or special lens (architectural)

27
 Perspective Projection
Projectors converge at center of projection

Naturally we see things in perspective

o Objects appear smaller the farther away they are;
o Rays from view point are not parallel. 28
 Vanishing Points
vanishing point
• Parallel lines (not parallel to the
projection plan) on the object converge
at a single point in the projection (the
vanishing point)
• Drawing simple perspectives by hand
uses these vanishing point(s)

29
 Three-Point Perspective
• No principal face parallel to projection plane
• Three vanishing points for cube

30
 Two-Point Perspective
• On principal direction parallel to projection plane
• Two vanishing points for cube

31
 One-Point Perspective
• One principal face parallel to projection plane
• One vanishing point for cube

32