COMPUTER

ORGANIZATION
AND
ARCHITECTURE
(COA)
Ms. Umang Kant
AP, KIET, CSE-AIML
Department
Ph.D Research Scholar, DTU,
CSE
CONTENTS
1. Course Details
2. Course Syllabus and Suggested Books
3. Computer
4. Evolution and History of Computer
5. Generations of Computer
6. Classification of Computer
COURSE DETAILS
COA SYLLABUS &
SUGGESTED BOOKS
COA LAB
ASSESSMENT
 UNIT 01
INTRODUCTI
ON
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
 The Oxford dictionary defines a computer as ‘an automatic
electronic apparatus for making calculations or
controlling operations that are expressible in
numerical or logical terms’.
 The definition clearly categorizes the computer as an
electronic apparatus although the first computers were
mechanical and electro-mechanical apparatuses.
 The definition also points towards the two major areas of
computer applications: data processing and computer-
assisted controls or operations.
 Another important conclusion of the definition is the fact
that the computer can perform only those operations or
calculations that can be expressed in logical or numerical
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
 A computer is a data processor.
 It can accept input, which may be either data or instructions or
both.
 The computer remembers the input by storing it in memory cells.
 It then processes the stored input by performing calculations or by
making logical comparisons or both.
 It gives out the result of the arithmetic or logical computations as
output information.
 The computer accepts input and output data in an alphanumeric
form.
 Internally it converts the input data to meaningful binary digits,
performs the instructed operations on the binary data, and transforms
the data from binary digit form to understandable alphanumeric form.
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS-
A BRIEF HISTORY
 COMPUTING IN MECHANICAL ERA
 The concept of calculating machines evolved long before the invention of
electrical and electronic devices.
 The first mechanical calculating apparatus was the abacus, which was invented
in 500 BC in Babylon. It was used extensively without any improvement until
1642 when Blaise Pascal designed a calculator that employed gears and wheels.
 But it was not until the early 1800s that a practical, geared, mechanical
computing calculator became available. This machine could calculate facts but was
not able to use a program to compute numerical facts.
 In 1823, Charles Babbage, aided by Augusta Ada Byron, the Countess of
Lovelace, started an ambitious project of producing a programmable calculating
machine for the Royal Navy of Great Britain. It was named Analytical Engine, and
the input to this machine was given through punched cards.
 This engine stored 1,000-20digit decimal numbers and a modifiable
program, which could vary the operation of the machine so that it could execute
different computing jobs.
 But even after several years of efforts, the machine that had more than 50,000
mechanical parts could not operate reliably because the parts could not be
machined to precision.
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS-
A BRIEF HISTORY
 COMPUTING IN ELECTRICAL ERA
 With the availability of electric motors in 1800, a host of motor-operated
calculating machines based on Pascal’s calculator was developed.
 A mechanical machine, driven by a single electric motor, was developed in 1889
by Herman Hollerith to count, sort and collate data stored on punched cards.
 In 1941, Konard Zuse developed the first electronic calculating computer Z3. It
was used by the Germans in World War II.
 However, Alan Turing is credited with developing the first electronic computer
in 1943. This computer system named Colossus, was a fixed-program computer,
it was not programmable.
 J.W. Mauchly and S.P. Eckert of University of Pennsylvania completed the first
general-purpose electronic digital computer in 1946. It was called ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator). It used 17,000 vacuum tubes,
over 500 miles of wires, weighed 30tons, and performed around 100,000
operations per seconds.
 The IAS computer system, under development till 1952 by John Von Neumann
and others at the Princeton Institute, laid the foundation of the general structure
of subsequent general-purpose computers.
 In the early 1950s, Sperry-Rand Corporation launched UNIVAC I, UNIVAC
II, UNIVAC 1103 series while IBM brought out Mark I and 701 series. All these
machines used vacuum tubes.
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS-
A BRIEF
 COMPUTING HISTORY
IN ELECTRICAL ERA (cont..)
 Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments, invented integrated circuits in 1958 that
led to development of digital integrated circuits in the 1960s. This led to
the development of IBM 360/370, PDP 8/1, and HP 9810 in 1966. These
computers used medium and small scale integrated circuits (MSI and SSI).
 In 1971, Intel Corp. announced the development of the single-chip
microprocessor 4004 (a very large scale integrated circuit).
 In 1972, the 8008 8-bit microprocessor was introduced.
 Subsequently, the 8080 and MC 6800 appeared in 1973, which were
improved 8-bit microprocessors.
 The last of 8-bit microprocessor family from Intel, 8085, was introduced as a
general purpose processor in 1974.
 In 1978, the 8086, and in 1979, the 8088 microprocessors were released.
 In 1981, IBM used the 8088 microprocessor in the personal computer.
 An updated version of 8086, 80286 16-bit microprocessor came in 1983,
and 32-bit microprocessor 80386 arrived in 1986 and 80486 arrived in
1989.
 With the introduction to the Pentium in 1993, a highly improved personal
computer was available at an affordable price.
GENERATIONS OF
COMPUTER
 A computer is an electronic device that manipulates
information or data.
 It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.
 Nowadays, a computer can be used to type documents, send
email, play games, and browse the Web.
 It can also be used to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations,
and even videos.
 But the evolution of this complex system started around 1940
with the first Generation of Computer and evolving ever since.
 There are five generations of computers.
  1946-1959 is the period of
first-generation computer.
 J.P.Eckert and
J.W.Mauchy invented the
first successful electronic
computer called ENIAC.
ENIAC stands for “Electronic
Numeric Integrated And
Calculator”.
 Technology Used: Vacuum
Tubes

FIRST GENERATION  Size: Filled the whole

building
(1946-1959): VACUUM
TUBES
FIRST GENERATION (1946-
1959): VACUUM TUBES
Characteristic Description
Examples ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM-701, IBM-650 etc.
Advantages 1. It made use of vacuum tubes which were the only
electronic component available during those days.
2. These computers could calculate in milliseconds.

Disadvantages 1. These were very big in size; weight was about 30 tones.
2. These computers were very costly.
3. It could store only a small amount of information due to
the presence of magnetic drums.
4. As the invention of first-generation computers involves
vacuum tubes, so another disadvantage of these
computers was, vacuum tubes require a large cooling
system.
5. Very less work efficiency.
6. Limited programming capabilities and punch cards
were used to take inputs.
7. Large amount of energy consumption.
8. Not reliable and constant maintenance is required.
 1959-1965 is the period of second-
generation computer.
 Second generation computers were based on
Transistor instead of vacuum tubes.
 Technology used: Transistors
 Size: Filled an entire room

SECOND
GENERATION (1959-
1965): TRANSISTORS
SECOND GENERATION
(1959-1965): TRANSISTORS
Characteristic Description
Examples Honeywell 400, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, UNIVAC 1108
etc.
Advantages 1. Due to the presence of transistors instead of vacuum
tubes, the size of electron component decreased. This
resulted in reducing the size of a computer as compared to
first generation computers.
2. Less energy and does not produce as much heat as
the first generation.
3. Assembly language and punch cards were used for
input.
4. Low cost than first generation computers.
5. Better speed, calculate data in microseconds.
6. Better portability as compared to first generation.
Disadvantages 1. A cooling system was required.
2. Constant maintenance was required.
3. Only used for specific purposes.
 1965-1971 is the period of
third generation computer.
 These computers were based
on Integrated circuits (ICs).
 IC was invented by Robert
Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958-
1959.
 IC was a single component
containing number of transistors.
 Technology: Integrated
Circuits
transistors)
(ICs) (multiple
THIRD GENERATION
 Size: Smaller (1965-1971):
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
(IC)
THIRD GENERATION (1965-
1971): INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS (IC)
Characteristic Description
Examples PDP-8, PDP-11, ICL 2900, IBM 360, IBM 370 etc.
Advantages 1. These computers were cheaper as compared to second-
generation computers.
2. They were fast and reliable.
3. Use of IC in the computer provides the small size of the
computer.
4. IC not only reduce the size of the computer, but it also
improves the performance of the computer as
compared to previous computers.
5. This generation of computers has big storage capacity.
6. Instead of punch cards, mouse and keyboard are used for
input.
7. They used an operating system for better resource
management and used the concept of time-sharing and
multiple programming.
8. These computers reduce the computational time from
microseconds to nanoseconds.
Disadvantages 1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.
FOURTH GENERATION
(1971-1980):
MICROPROCESSORS
1971-1980 is the period of fourth
generation computer.
 This technology is based on
Microprocessor.
 A microprocessor is used in a computer
for any logical and arithmetic function to
be performed in any program.
 Graphics User Interface (GUI)
technology was exploited to offer more
comfort to users.
 Technology: Microprocessor (millions
of transistors)
 Size: Small
FOURTH GENERATION
(1971-1980):
MICROPROCESSORS
Characteristic Description
Examples IBM 4341, DEC 10, STAR 1000, PUP 11 etc.
Advantages 1. Fastest in computation and size get reduced as compared
to the previous generation of computer.
2. Heat generated is negligible.
3. Small in size as compared to previous generation
computers.
4. Less maintenance is required.
5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type
of computers.
Disadvantages 1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very
complex.
2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the
presence of ICs.
3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.
FIFTH GENERATION
(1980 ONWARDS)
 The period of the fifth generation in
1980-onwards.
 This generation is based on artificial
intelligence.
 The aim of the fifth generation is to make a
device which could respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning
and self-organization.
 This generation is based on ULSI (Ultra
Large Scale Integration) technology
resulting in the production of microprocessor
chips having ten million electronic
component.
FIFTH GENERATION (1980
ONWARDS)
Characteristic Description
Examples Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook, Chromebook etc.
Advantages 1. It is more reliable and works faster.
2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.
3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces
with multimedia features.
Disadvantages 1. They need very low-level languages.
2. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.
CLASSIFICATION OF
COMPUTERS Classification of
Computers

1. By 2. By
3. By Type
Size Purpose

1.1 2.1 General 3.1 Analog

Supercomputer Purpose Computer

1.2 Mainframe 2.2 Special 3.2 Digital

Computer Purpose Computer

1.3 Mini
Computer 3.3 Hybrid
Computer

1.4 Micro
Computer
 1.1
SUPERCOMPUTER
 A Supercomputer is the fastest and powerful,
and expensive type of computer for processing data.
 Supercomputers’ size and storage capacity are also
huge (can occupy huge premises)
 Supercomputer is designed to process vast amounts of
data in a short time with high productivity.
 These are specially made to perform multi-specific
tasks. Therefore, many CPUs work in parallel order on
these supercomputers. This function of a Supercomputer
is called Multiprocessing or Parallel Processing.
 A supercomputer’s design is complicated, like it can be
heterogeneous, combining computers of different
architectures, is significantly surpassed most existing
personal computers. This made this machine an ultra-
high-performance supercomputer.
 Each part of a supercomputer is responsible for its own
specific task, such as structuring and solving the most
complex problems requiring an incredible number of
calculations.
1.1 SUPERCOMPUTER
Characteristics Description
Examples IBM Roadburner, IBM Blue Gene, Intel ASI Red, PARAM-
1000, CRAY_XMP-14 etc.

Applications 1. In research and study of energy and nuclear

weapons and designing the aircraft, airplanes, and
flight simulators.
2. Climate research and Weather Forecasting and
Prediction of Natural Disasters.
3. Spaceship and Satellite Launching.
4. Used in scientific research laboratories.
5. Used in Chemical and Biological research and for
highly calculation complex tasks.
6. Stock Predictions
  Mainframe computers are multi-programming,
high-performance computers, and multi-user, which
means it can handle the workload of more than 100
users at a time on the computer.
The storage capacity of the mainframe is enormous,
with a high-speed data process as well. As well as
handling hundreds of input and output devices at a
time.
The mainframe is a highly efficient computer capable
of simultaneously solving complex
calculations and continuously for a long time.
These computers have several microprocessors
that can process the data at high performance and
speed.
Somehow mainframes can be more powerful than
supercomputers because the mainframe supports many
processes simultaneously. On the other hand,

1.2
supercomputers can run a single program but faster
than a mainframe. In the past, Mainframes requires
entire rooms or even floors of whole buildings for set

MAINFRAME up.
Today, IBM company is leading the production of

COMPUTER mainframe computers. Mainframe reliability is

increased with development in the past 60 years.
These computers can fix most of the hardware and
software bugs.
1.2 MAINFRAME
COMPUTER
Characteristics Description
Examples IBM Es000 series, ICL39 Series, CDC 6600 etc.

Applications 1. Mainframe computers are mainly used by

departmental and commercial organizations like
Banks, Companies, Scientific research centers, and
governmental departments like railways.
2. These computers can work for 24 hours. Hundreds of
users can work on these computations simultaneously.
3. Using the mainframe completes the tasks, such as
keeping details of payments, research centers,
advertising, sending bills and notices, paying
employees, ticket booking, maintaining details of
purchases by users, keeping detailed tax details,
etc.
 1.3 MINI

COMPUTER
Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer
system with the connection of more than one CPU.
Thus, many people can work on these computers
simultaneously instead of a single person. Also, it can
process with other accessories like a printer, plotter,
etc.
 Minicomputers are the medium type of computers
that have more functionality power and expensive than
microcomputers. On the other hand, the size, storage,
and speed of minicomputers are large but less
than the mainframe and supercomputers.
 Minicomputers are made for performing a lot of
computers at a single point of time, instead of
assigning many microcomputers for every task, which
will be time-consuming and expensive.
In general, a minicomputer is a multi-threaded
system (several processes at a time) capable of
supporting from one to up to 200 users simultaneously:
these computers are currently used to store large
databases, multi-user applications, and the automation
industry.
1.3 MINI COMPUTER
Characteristics Description
Examples PDP 1, PDP 11 IBM etc.
*Note: PDP-1 was the world’s first minicomputer, small
and interactive, introduced in 1960 by the Digital
Equipment Corporation.
Applications 1. The minicomputers are used as real-time applications
in Industries, bookings, and Research Centers.
2. Banks also use minicomputers for preparing payroll for
employees’ salaries, records, tracking of financial
accounts, etc.
3. As well as in the field of Higher Education and
Engineering.
1.4 MICRO COMPUTER
Today we are using minicomputers at home is also the most common microcomputer.
With this invention of the microprocessors in the year 1970, it became possible to use
computers for people personally at a low cost and reasonable price known as
Digital Personal Computer.
The design of microcomputers is minimal in size and storage capacity. These
computers consist of many parts like Input and Output devices, Software,
operating systems, networks, and Servers all these need to connect to form
complete Personal Digital Computer.
PC or laptop are not the only examples of microcomputers. Other examples of the
microcomputer are smartphone, Tablet, PDA, server, palmtop, and workstation.
This can be installed in any work area or even at home for personal use.
The primary purpose of microcomputers is to keep and process everyday tasks and
needs of the people. Only one person can work on a single PC at a time, but its operating
system is multitasking. The PC can be connected to the Internet to enhance the user
experience.
The development of multimedia, small equipment, optimized energy consumption, and
the LAN made the microcomputers increase in demand for every field.
The increase in the demand and need for microcomputers between the people leads to
the tremendous development of each part related to the microcomputers.
1.4 MICRO COMPUTER
Characteristics Description
Examples IBM PCs, Apple Macintosh etc.
Applications 1. PC is being widely used in many fields like home,
office, data collection, business, education,
entertainment, publishing, etc.
2. It keeps the details and prepares letters for
correspondence in small businesses, creating bills,
accounting, word processing, and operation of the filing
systems in a large company.
3. Some of the major PC manufacturers are IBM, Lenovo,
Apple, HCL, HP, etc.
 General computers can do
various everyday tasks such as
writing a word processing letter,
Document preparation, recording,
financial analysis, printing
2.1 documents, creating databases,
and calculations with accuracy and
GENERAL consistency.
PURPOSE The size, storage capacity, and
COMPUT cost of such computers are mainly
less.
ER The ability of these computers is
limited in performing specialized
tasks. Still, it has the versatility
and useful for serving people’s
basic needs at home or in the
workplace in the environment.
 2.2 SPECIAL
PURPOSE COMPUTER
These computers are designed to perform a particular or
specialized task.
The size, storage capacity, and cost of such computers
mainly depend on the nature and size of the work.
The function of these computers is consistent with a specific
task.
The special purpose computer needs
specific processors and input and devices to conduct
work efficiently.
These computers are used for special purposes in weather
forecasting, space research, agriculture, engineering,
meteorology, satellite operation, traffic control, and
research in chemical sciences.
 3.1 ANALOG
COMPUTER
An analog computer performs tasks using continuous data (the physical amount
that changes continuously).
Analog computers are used primarily to measure physical units like voltage, pressure,
electric current, temperature, and convert them into digits.
It is also used to measure and perform arithmetic calculations of numbers, the length
of an object, or the amount of voltage that passes through a point in an electrical
circuit.
Analog computers obtain all their data from some measurement way.
Analog computers are mainly used in the fields of science and engineering.
Analog computers are slow and equipped to measure things rather than countable or
check.
The efficiency of this computer increases when we get the result of the data in
graphs, etc.
Analog Computers cannot store statistics.
They are used in the fields of technology, science, research, engineering,
education, etc. Because quantities like the voltage, pressure, electric current,
temperature are used more in these areas, these types of computers give only
approximate estimates.
An analog computer installed on a petrol pump measures the amount of petrol
coming out of the pump and appears in liters. And calculates its value. These
quantities vary continuously while measuring the amount, such as the temperature of
a human body changes consistently.
A simple clock, the vehicle’s speedometer, Voltmeter, etc. are examples of analog
3.2 DIGITAL COMPUTER
As its name suggests, a digital computer represents the digital
computer’s letters, numerical values, or any other special symbols.
This computer is the computer that calculates the number
for processing the data.
They run on electronic signs, and the binary numeral method
Binary System 0 or 1 is used for calculation. Their speed is fast.
It can perform arithmetic operations such as addition, occurrence,
subtraction, multiplication, or division and all types of
logical(mathematical) operations. Today, most of the computers
available in the market are digital computers.
Digital computers are built to bring the solution of equations to an
almost unlimited precision, but in a bit slow manner compared to
analog computers. To some extent, they all have similar components
for receiving, processing, sorting, and transmitting data and use a
relatively small number of essential functions to perform their tasks.
Digital computers use discrete electrical signals for operation rather
than continuous electrical signals as analog computers have, making
the most common form of computers today because of
their versatility, speed, and power.
 Example: Personal Desktop Computers, Calculators, Laptops,
Smartphones, and Tablets, Digital watch, Accounting machines,
Workstations, Digital clock, etc.
ANALOG COMPUTER VS
DIGITAL COMPUTER
3.3 HYBRID COMPUTER
A hybrid computer is a combined complex computer unit built using both analog and
digital properties and united by a single control system. The purpose of designing hybrid
computers is to provide functions and features that can be found on both analog and
digital devices.
The aim behind creating a hybrid computer is to create a kind of work unit that offers the
best of both types of computers. Hybrid computers are extremely fast when driving
equations, even when those calculations are incredibly complex.
As both the properties of a computer consist in the form of a single hybrid computer
made possible to solve too complex calculations or problems, at the same time,
these devices are not only too expensive but also able to solve complex issues bit fast.
Incorporating the properties of both(analog and digital) computers into hybrid computers
makes it possible to resolve more difficult equations immediately.
The analog computer systems solve the equation process immediately. But it is not
necessary that those solutions would be completely accurate.
Here, the digital computer system gives 100 % percent correct solutions, but it takes a
bit of time in the calculation. Therefore, Hybrid computers are made to overcome the
flaws of both these analog and digital systems.
Applications : Hybrid computers are most used in vast industries, research centers,
organizations, and manufacturing firms. Also, the solutions and uses of hybrid computers
have proved to be much more detailed, accurate, and useful. Hybrid computers are used
in scientific calculations, for nations’ defense and radar systems as well.