CHAPTER 2:

MATERIAL-REMOVAL PROCESSES AND MACHINES:

 Machine tool generally means a metal cutting machine.

 A machine tool is a power driven device used for shaping, sizing or

processing a product to a desired accuracy by removing the excess
material in the form of chips.
 The basic machining operations are turning, drilling, shaping etc…
 The machine tools have some essential features common to all of
them, that is they have a basic structure to which are attached work
holding and tool holding devices, arrangements for giving
movements to the work piece and the tool for the depth of cut,
cutting speed and feed and a drive.
•There are several types of Special purpose machine tools and Standard
machine tools.
•Special purpose machine tools are meant for specific operations or jobs such as
gear cutting machines, thread grinding machines, transfer machines or machining
centers.
•This type of machine tools are designed for only a limited number of operations.
•They are costlier and suited for large volume of production only.
•Standard machine tools are general purpose machine tools capable of
performing a number of operations.
Types of Standard machine tools are:
1.Lathe machine,
2.A drilling machine
3.Shaper machine
4.Milling machine and
5.A grinding machine…..
WORKING MOTIONS FOR SOME MACHINE TOOLS

LATHE

DRILLING
SHAPING

MILLING
GRINDING
 CUTTING TOOL
A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is
made of a material that is harder than the work material.
 The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the parent
work material.
 There are two basic types, (a) single-point tools and

(b) multiple-cutting-edge tools.

A single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used for
operations such as turning.
 Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting

edge and usually achieve their motion relative to the work

part by rotating.
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple-cutting-edge

tools.
LATHES
 Lathes are turning machines.

LATHE MACHINE
•Their basic operation involves rotating a work piece and traversing a
sharp cutting tool across its length.

•Lathe is one of the most widely used machine tools in metal cutting
works.
•These are basically designed to cut cylindrical metal stock and are able to
produce screw threads, tapered work, drilled holes.
•It is used for machining the job (work piece) which is rotated and a
cutting tool is fed to cause the cutting action.
CLASSIFICATION OF LATHE:
1) Bench lathe
2) Speed lathe
3) Centre lathe
4) Tool room lathe
5) Turret lathe
6) Capstan lathe
7) Automatic lathe
8) CNC lathe
MAIN PARTS OF LATHE :

LATHE MACHINE
MAIN PARTS OF LATHE :
Bed
Head Stock
Tail Stock
Carriage Or Tool Post
 Machining operations other than turning that are
performed on a lathe:
a. Facing,

b. Turning or Taper Turning,

c. Thread cutting,

d. Knurling,

e. Drilling,

f. Reaming

g. Parting or cutting off

h. Boring and

i. Grooving
Advantages:
 Variety of work materials.
 Variety of part shapes and geometric features.
 Dimensional accuracy.
 Good surface finishes.

Disadvantages:
 Wasteful of material.
 Time consuming.
SHAPER MACHINE
 Shaping and planing are similar operations, both involving the use
of a single-point cutting tool moved linearly relative to the work
part.
 In conventional shaping and planing, a straight, flat surface is
created by this action.
 The difference between the two operations is, in shaping the speed
motion is accomplished by moving the cutting tool; while in
planing, the speed motion is accomplished by moving the work
part.
SHAPER :-
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SHAPER
 A single point cutting tool is held in the tool holder, which is
mounted on the ram.
 The work piece is rigidly held in a vice or clamped directly on the
table.
 The ram reciprocates and thus cutting tool held in tool holder moves
forward and backward over the work piece.
 In a standard shaper, cutting of material takes place during the
forward stroke of the ram. The backward stroke remains idle and no
cutting takes place during this stroke.
 The feed is given to the work piece and depth of cut is adjusted by
moving the tool downward towards the work piece.
 The time taken during the idle stroke is less as compared to forward
cutting stroke and this is obtained by quick return mechanism.
Components of a shaper
Types of shapes that can cut by shaping and planing:
(a)V groove,
(b)Square groove,
(c)T-slot,
(d)dovetail slot, and
(e)gear teeth.
• Reciprocating type of machine tool - used for machining prismatic
components
•Job is rigidly held in work holding device- tool held in tool post
mounted on the ram of the machine – ram reciprocated to and fro
and makes the tool to cut the material in forward stroke
• No cutting of material in return stroke (Idle stroke)

Forward stroke is cutting stroke

Return stroke is idle stroke
 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF SHAPER

1) Base
2) Column
3) Cross-Rail
4) Table
5) Ram
6) Tool head
7) Vice
 CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPERS
 Based on length of the stroke, type of driving mechanism etc
shapers are classified as..
1) Horizontal shaper
2) Universal shaper
3) Vertical shaper
4) Geared shaper
5) Crank shaper
6) Hydraulic shapers
 SHAPER OPERATIONS
 The basic operations done on shaper are:
1) Horizontal cutting
2) Vertical cutting
3) Angular cutting
4) Irregular cutting
 SHAPING MACHINE

Cutting tool in action

Photographic view of a shaping machine

DRILLING MACHINE
 DRILLING MACHINE
 Drilling is a machining operation used to create a round hole
in a work part. .
 Drilling is usually performed with a rotating cylindrical tool
that has two cutting edges on its working end.
 The tool is called a drill or drill bit.
 The rotating drill feeds into the stationary work part to form a
hole whose diameter is equal to the drill diameter.
Twist drill is the most widely used tool in modern drilling practice.
It consists of a cylindrical body carrying two spiral flutes cut on it.

The twist drill consists of two main parts i.e, a shank, which is
gripped in the drill chuck or sleeve, and the other the body which
forms the main cutting unit.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DRILLING

MACHINE
The rotating edge of the drill exerts a large force on the work piece
and the hole is generated. The removal of metal in a drilling
operation is by shearing and extrusion.
Two hole types: (a) through hole and (b) blind hole.
1. Base
2. Column
3. Radial arm
4. Motor for
elevating arm
5. Elevating screw
6. Guide ways
7. Motor for driving
d rill spindle
8. Drill head
9. Drill spindle
10. Table
MAIN OPERATING PARTS OF DRILL
MACHINE
1) Base
2) Column
3) Table
4) Drilling head
TYPES OF DRILL MACHINES
1. Portable drilling machine

2. Sensitive or bench drill drilling machine

3. Radial drilling machine

4. Deep hole drilling machine

5. Gang drilling machine

6. Multiple spindle drilling machine

7. Horizontal drilling machine

8. Automatic drilling machine

OPERATIONS DONE ON DRILLING MACHINE

Machining operations
related to drilling:
(a)Drilling,
(b)Reaming,
(c)Boring ,
(d)Counter-boring,
(e)Counter-sinking ,
(f)spot facing and
(g)Tapping.
DRILLING
OPERATIONS :-

Drilling & boring

Reaming & tapping
 MILLING MACHINE
 Milling is a machining operation in which a work part is fed past
a rotating cylindrical tool with multiple cutting edges,
 The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the
direction of feed.
 The cutting tool in milling is called a milling cutter and the
cutting edges are called teeth.
 The conventional machine tool that performs this operation is a
milling machine.
 The geometric form created by milling is a plane surface.
 Variety of shapes possible, high production rates, one of the most
versatile, widely used machining operations.
 PRINCIPLE OF MILLING
 In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating
cutter having multiple cutting edges. For cutting operation,
the work piece is fed against the rotary cutter.
 As the work piece moves against the cutting edges of milling
cutter, metal is removed in form chips.
 Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the
work.
Two basic types of milling operations: (a) peripheral or plain
milling and (b) face milling.
 In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of
the tool is parallel to the surface being machined, and the
operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside
periphery of the cutter.
 In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the
surface being milled, and machining is performed by cutting
edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter.
 TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES

1. Column and knee type milling machines

2. Fixed-bed type milling machine

3. Planer milling machine

4. Production milling machines

5. Special purpose milling machines

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF MILLING
MACHINE
 Base
 Column

 Knee

 Saddle

 Table

 Over arm

 Arbor support

 Elevating screw.
HORIZONTAL MILLING :-
VERTICAL MILLING :-
 MILLING OPERATIONS
 Plain or Slab milling
 Face milling

 Angular milling

 Form milling

 Straddle milling

 Gang milling
Peripheral milling: (a) slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling, (d)
straddle milling, and (e) form milling.
Face milling: (a) conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, (c) end
milling, (d) profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring.
Tool geometry elements of an 18-tooth plain milling cutter.
MILLING OPERATIONS :-

Pockets & chamfering

FLAT SURFACES
GRINDING MACHINE :-
GRINDING MACHINE :-
 ABRASIVE PROCESSES
 Abrasive machining involves material removal by the action
of hard, abrasive particles that are usually in the form of a
bonded wheel.
 Grinding is the most important abrasive process.
 Other traditional abrasive processes include honing,
lapping, super finishing, polishing, and buffing.
 The abrasive machining processes are generally used as
finishing operations
 They can be used on all types of materials ranging from soft
metals to hardened steels and hard non metallic materials
such as ceramics and silicon.
 Some of these processes can produce extremely fine surface
finishes, to 0.025 μm.
 For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be held to
extremely close tolerances.
 GRINDING
 Grinding is a material removal process accomplished by
abrasive particles that are contained in a bonded grinding
wheel rotating at very high surface speeds.
 The grinding wheel is usually disk-shaped, and is precisely
balanced for high rotational speeds.
A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding
material.
 The bonding material holds the particles in place and
establishes the shape and structure of the wheel.
 The projected abrasive particles act like cutting tool tips and
remove metal.
 Cutting edge becomes dulled and eventually get cracked.
 This process continues till the abrasive grains get worn out
till the level of bond
 Bond allows the remainder of the worn grains to be torn
from the wheel exposing new grains.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF GRINDING

 A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles, bonding material

and voids.

 The projecting abrasive particles acts like cutting tool tips and
remove metal where a properly selected grinding wheel exhibits
self-sharpening action.

 As cutting proceeds, the abrasive particles at cutting edge become

cracked along the cleavage planes due to resistance offered by
work piece metal which resists the cutting action.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF GRINDING

 This process continues till the abrasive grains get worn

down till the level of bond.

 At this point the bond allows the remainder of the worn

grains to be torn from the wheel, exposing new grains
which were previous below the surface of the wheel and
the new grains do further cutting action.
 TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINES
1. Rough grinding or non precision grinding

a. Floor stand or bench grinders

b. Portable grinders

c. Swing frame grinders

d. Abrasive belt grinders

2. Precision grinding

a. Cylindrical grinders

b. Internal grinders

c. Surface grinders

d. Tool and cutter grinders

e. Special grinding machines

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A GRINDING
MACHINE
 METHODS OF GRINDING
 Cylindrical grinding.
 Internal grinding.

 Surface grinding.

 Face grinding.

 Form grinding.

 Centre less grinding.

 Snagging grinding.

 Off-hand grinding.
 NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE
TOOLS
 Numerical control (NC) has been developed out of the need for higher
productivity, lower cost and most precise manufacturing.

 In NC systems, operation instructions are inputted to the machine as

numbers which are suitably cooled for storing on tapes.

 These instructions are then automatically carried out in the machine tool
in predetermined sequence with pre-set or self-adjusted speed, feed etc
with out human intervention.

 The definition of NC given by electronic industries association (EIA) –

“A system in which actions are controlled by direct insertion of numerical
data at some point. The system must automatically interpret at least some
portion of this data.”
•Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which
the mechanical actions of a piece of equipment are controlled by a
program containing coded alphanumeric data.
•The operating principle of NC is to control the motion of the work head
relative to the work part and to control the sequence in which the motions
are carried out.
•A programme is prepared which consists of blocks, blocks consisting of
combination of characters and numbers in sequence describing the
position of the tool and job, the cutting speed and feed.
•The data converted into coded instructions which are called a Part
Programme. As the job changes, the instructions of part program are also
changed.
 BASIC COMPONENTS OF NC
MACHINES
 Program of instruction
 Controller unit
 Machine tool
 PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION
 Serves as the input to the control unit which commands
the machine tool to be controlled.
 Detailed step by step procedure which instructs the
machine tool what to do.
 Input media can be punched cards/ magnetic disks or tape/
punched tape.
 Manual entry (MDI)
 Direct link to the computer (DNC)
 CONTROLLER UNIT
 Consists of electronics and hardware that read and
interpret the instructions
 Instructions are converted into mechanical actions of the
machine tool
 Elements are 1.tape reader 2. data buffer 3. signal output
to machine tool 4. feedback channel from M/C tool and 5.
data decoding control area
 MACHINE TOOL
 The machine tool consists of the worktable, spindle cutting
tools, work fixtures, motors and controls and other equipment
needed in the machining operation.

 NC machining centre is an automated production equipment

which can perform various operations and has special features
like automatic tool changer (ATC) and automatic pallet hanger
(APC) which contribute to enhanced productivity.
 ADVANTAGES
 Higher machine utilisation
 Machining functions can be easily changed
 Human error is reduced
 Scrap rate and rework is reduced
 Design changes an be easily incorporated
 Can perform various operations
 Increased versatility and reliability
DISADVANTAGES

 Requires high initial cost

 Maintenance costs are high
 Skilled and experienced persons
 Punched tapes are least reliable components
 Costly controller systems are utilised in the machines
 APPLICATIONS
 Metal removal process like milling, drilling, boring, turning,
grinding etc.
 Press working machine tools.

 Welding machines.

 Inspection machines.

 Assembly machines.

 Tube bending.

 Flame cutting.

 Laser beam processes.