UNIT-I

Introduction & Physical Layer

Contents
Introduction:
• Network, Uses of Networks,
• Types of Networks
• Reference Models: TCP/IP Model, The OSI
Model,
• Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP reference
model
• Architecture of Internet.
Physical Layer:
• Guided transmission media,
• Wireless transmission media,
• Switching
Introduction:
A data communications system has five components
1. Message: Information(data) to be communicated
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium - Physical path by which a message travels
5.Protocol - A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
Contd..
Contd..
 Data Flow
 Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-

duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure.

 NETWORK

• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links.

• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of

sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.

• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which

can transport a signal carrying information.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security

 Performance
 Depends on Network Elements

 Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput

 Reliability
 Measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to

recover from a failure.

 Measured in terms of availability/robustness

 Security
 Protecting data from unauthorized access.

 Implementing policies and procedures for recovery from data

losses.
USES OF NETWORKS

 Business Applications
 Resource sharing
 Client-Server model.
 Desktop sharing
 E-commerce
 IP telephony or Voice over IP (VoIP)

 Home Applications
 peer-to-peer communication
 person-to-person communication
 electronic commerce
 entertainment.(game playing,)
USES OF NETWORKS

 Mobile Users
 Text messaging or texting

 Smart phones,

 GPS (Global Positioning System)

 m-commerce

 Social Issues
 with the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom

brings with it
many unsolved social,)
BOTNET ATTACK: (send spam) political, and ethical
issues.
Network Topologies

• The network topology is the method for arrangement

of computing devices or networking devices through
which they are connected (Wired or Wireless) or
Physical arrangement of various nodes in the network
• There are almost six types of topologies which are
employed for networking of computing devices
(Computers or networking devices)

• 1. Bus 2. Ring 3. Star 4. Mesh

5. Tree 6. Hybrid
Bus Topology

• Bus topology is a network type in which every

computer and networking device is connected to
single cable
• Features
• Data transmission is in one direction only
• Each device is connected to single cable
• Advantages
• Cost effective (Cheap)
• Cable required is less when compared to other
topologies.
• Easy to expand network (by joining two cables
together)
• Disadvantages
• When cable fails then whole network fails
• Performance of topology decreases with increase in
nodes and traffic
Ring Topology

• It is called as ring topology because it forms a ring as

each computer is connected to the other computer
with last one connected to first.
• Ring topology has exactly two neighbors for each
node
• Features
• Number of repeaters are used and transmission is
unidirectional
• Data transfer is bit by bit (sequential Manner)
• Advantages
• Performance of network is not effected by increase in
traffic or by adding nodes as the nodes have the
tokens only can participate in communication.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• Disadvantages
• Trouble shooting is difficult
• Additions and deletions of nodes will disturb network
activity.
• Failure of one computer will disturb entire network
Star Topology

• All computers in this topology are connected to a

single hub through the cable and this hub is the
central node.
• All other nodes are to be connected to the central hub
in the case of extending the network
• Features
• Every node has its own dedicated connection to the
hub.
• Acts as repeater for data flow.
• Advantages
• Hubs can be easily upgraded.
• Easy to trouble shoot, setup and modify the network.
• In the case of failure only failure node is effected
reaming network will function smoothly.
• Disadvantages
• High Cost.
• If the hub is effected then functioning whole network
is disturbed.
Mesh Topology

• It is a point to point connection to all other

computers.
• Traffic is carried only between two nodes to which it is
connected
• Features
• Fully Connected
• Robust.
• Advantages
• Each connection can carry its own data.
• Fault diagnosis is easy.
• Provides security and privacy.
• Disadvantages
• Installation and configuration is difficult.
• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.
Tree Topology

• It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to

the root node forming hierarchy and it is also called as
hierarchical topology.
• It should have atleast three levels for the hierarchy
• Features
• Ideal if work stations are located in groups
• Used in wide area networks.
• Advantages
• Easy error detection.
• Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
• Easy to maintain and manage.
• Disadvantages
• Costly and heavily cabled.
• Addition of more nodes increases difficulty in
maintenance.
• Failure of root effects all nodes in the network.
Hybrid Topology

• A network structure whose design contains more that

one topology is referred as hybrid topology.
• Features
• Combinations of two or more topologies
• Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the
topologies included.
• Advantages
• Reliable as error correction and trouble shooting is
easy.
• Scalable (Size can be increased and decreased easily).
• Disadvantages
• Costly.
• Complex Design.
Comparison of Network
Topologies
Types of Networks

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area
it covers and its physical architecture. The three primary network
categories are LAN, WAN and MAN.
Local Area Networks (LANs)

• Short distances
• Designed to provide local interconnectivity
 Local Area Networks (LANs)
•Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each
other in a small area such as building, office.
•LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers
through a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial
cable, etc.
•It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as
hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
•The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
•Local Area Network provides higher security.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
• Designed to extend to an entire city
• Cable TV network, a company’s connected LAN’s
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
•A metropolitan area network is a network that covers areas with
in the city by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
•Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and
private industries.
•In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
•The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame
Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
•It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
•MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
•It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
•It can be used in a college within a city.
•It can also be used for communication in the military.
 Wide Area Networks(WANs)
• Long distance transmission, e.g., a country, a continent,
the world
 Wide Area Networks(WANs)
•A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
•A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
•. A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it
spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
fiber optic cable or satellite links.
•The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
•A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
•Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical
area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can
connect with them through WAN. T.
•Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore,
we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
•Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore,
the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
•Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The
web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate
with friends.
•Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
•Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
•High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives
the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate
which in turn increases the productivity of our company .
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
The following are the disadvantages of the Wide
Area Network:
•Security issue: A WAN network has more security
issues as compared to LAN and MAN network as all
the technologies are combined together that creates
the security problem.
•Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data
is transferred on the internet which can be changed
or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be
used. Some people can inject the virus in our system
so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
•High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN
network is high as it involves the purchasing of
routers, switches.
•Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area
so fixing the problem is difficult.
Reference Models : OSI Model, TCP/IP Model,

LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example,

let us consider two friends who communicate through postal
mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post
office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter
Reference Models : OSI Model, TCP/IP Model,


Computer network reference models are responsible for establishing a
connection among the sender and receiver and transmitting the data
in a smooth manner respectively.

There are two computer network models i.e. OSI Model and TCP/IP
Model on which the whole data communication process relies.
OSI Reference Model

 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection

 Created by International Standards Organization (ISO)
 Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how different
networking technologies work together and interact
 It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow
 OSI model is called as “Open Source” because of its “fit anywhere” ability.
Any connection can be established using the OSI model unless and until any
protocols are not used as OSI model does not support protocol establishment.
It runs without the use of protocols
 Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for
 All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network
 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.23
Computer Network Models : Architecture And Layers of OSI Reference Model
Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It
is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices.

• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.

It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node
to the next.

• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received
and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link
layer, which will put the frame back together.

• Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

 Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a

bit stream over a physical medium.
Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The functions of the physical layer are :

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the

bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at bit level.

Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the
number of bits sent per second.

Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topolgy.

Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

It is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to next

node.
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

• The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of
the
message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-
free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.

Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :

• Logical Link Control (LLC)

• Media Access Control (MAC)
Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

Logical Link Control (LLC)

• The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card).
• DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the
header.
Media Access Control (MAC)
• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an
ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking
“Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

The functions of the data Link layer are : - Framing, Physical addressing ,
Error control, Flow Control, Access control.

• Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
• Framing - Divides the stream of bits received into data units
called frames.
• Physical addressing – If frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the n/w , data link layer adds a header to
the frame to define the sender and receiver.
• Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender ,the Data
link layer imposes a flow ctrl mechanism.
• Error control- Used for detecting and retransmitting damaged
or lost frames and to prevent duplication of frames. This is
achieved through a trailer added at the end of the frame.
• Access control -Used to determine which device has control
over the link at any given time.
Network Layer (Layer 3) :

It is mainly required, when it is necessary to send information

from one network to another.
Network Layer (Layer 3) :

• Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host
to the other located in different networks

The functions of the Network layer are

:
1. Routing:– The devices which connects various networks called routers
are responsible for delivering packets to final destination. The network
layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination.

2.Logical Addressing: The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.

*Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

Transport Layer(Layer 4) :
Transport Layer(Layer 4) :

 This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer , breaks the
message into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station
reassembles the message.

 In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer

header includes a type of address called service point address or port
address.
 May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to
ensure
destination received segments
 May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send
segments without assurance of delivery
 Functions of Transport Layer(Layer 4) :

• Port addressing – The header in this must therefore include a

address called port address. This layer gets the entire message to
the correct process on that computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly - The message is divided into
segments and each segment is assigned a sequence number. These
numbers are arranged correctly on the arrival side by this layer.
• Connection control - This can either be connectionless or
connection-oriented. The connectionless treats each segment as a
individual packet and delivers to the destination. The connection-
oriented makes connection on the destination side before the
delivery. After the delivery the termination will be terminated.
• Flow and error control - Similar to data link layer, but process
to process take place.
Session Layer (Layer 5) :
Session Layer (Layer 5) :

 This layer is responsible for establishment of

connection,
maintenance of sessions, authentication and also ensures security.

 The session layer allows two systems to start communication with

each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

 This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered

as synchronization points into the data.

 These synchronization point help to identify the error so that the data
is re-synchronized properly and data loss is avoided
Functions of Session
layer
• Dialog control - This session allows two systems to enter into
a dialog either in half duplex or full duplex.
• Synchronization -This allows to add checkpoints into a
stream of data.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of information

exchanged between two systems.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated
as per the required format to transmit over the network.

The functions of the presentation layer are :

 Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into

another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.
Application Layer (Layer 7) :
Application Layer (Layer 7) :

 Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or

operating system to communicate on the network.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
• FTAM(file transfer,access,mgmt) - Allows user to access files in a
remote host.
• Mail services - Provides email forwarding and storage.
• Directory services - Provides database sources to access information
about various sources and objects
 Examples

o –Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport

Protocol)
o –E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
to read e-mails and SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) to
send e-mails
SUMMARY:
An exchange using the OSI model
TCP/IP Model(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

• The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model.

It was designed to describe the functions of the communication
system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and
simpler components.

• But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and
developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based
on standard protocols.

• The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains

four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
TCP/IP Model(Contd..)

The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −

Application Layer

 Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing specific

network applications
o FTP – File Transfer Protocol – used for file transfer

o Telnet – Remote terminal protocol

 For remote login on any other computer on the network

o SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

 used to provide e-mail services.

o HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol

 For Web browsing

o DNS – Domain Name System

 The protocol that allows you to refer to other host
computers by using names rather than numbers.
Transport layer

The Transport layer is where sessions are established and data

packets are exchanged between hosts. Two core protocols are found
at this layer:

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

Provides reliable connection oriented transmission between two
hosts. TCP establishes a session between hosts, and then
ensures delivery of packets between the hosts.

• User Datagram Protocol (UDP):

Provides connectionless, unreliable, one-to-one or one-to-many
delivery.
Network layer
The Network layer is where data is addressed, packaged, and routed among
networks. Several important Internet protocols operate at the Network layer:

• Internet Protocol (IP):

A routable protocol that uses IP addresses to deliver packets to network
devices. IP is an intentionally unreliable protocol, so it does not guarantee
delivery of information.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
Resolves IP addresses to hardware MAC addresses.

• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):

Sends and receives diagnostic messages.
Network interface layer

• The lowest level of the TCP/IP architecture is the Network

Interface layer. It corresponds to the OSI's Physical and Data Link
layers.

• You can use many different TCP/IP protocols at the Network

Interface layer, including Ethernet and Token Ring for local area
networks and protocols such as X.25, Frame Relay, and ATM
for wide area networks.
UNIT I-Part-2
Physical Layer
1. Transmission Media

What is Transmission Media ?

In data communication,

• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that

can carry information from a source to a destination.

• We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data.

•Data is transmitted normally through electrical or

electromagnetic signals.
• Transmission media are located below the physical
layer
Classification of Transmission media
 Contd..
Some factors need to be considered for designing
the transmission media are:
•Bandwidth: the greater the bandwidth of a
medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a
signal.
•Transmission impairment: When the received
signal is not identical to the transmitted one due to
the transmission impairment. The quality of the
signals will get destroyed due to transmission
impairment.
•Interference: An interference is defined as the
process of disrupting a signal when it travels over a
communication medium on the addition of some
unwanted signal.
 Causes Of Transmission
Impairment:

•Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the

strength of the signal decreases with increasing the distance
which causes the loss of energy.
•Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the
shape of the signal. This type of distortion is examined from
different signals having different frequencies. Each frequency
component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a
different time which leads to the delay distortion.
•Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium,
some unwanted signal is added to it which creates the noise.
 Guided
• Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals
are transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.
• Types Of Guided media:
1. Twisted pair cable:
• Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables
twisted with each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as
compared to other transmission media. Installation of the
twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The
frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged
in a regular spiral pattern.
• The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by
the number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns
per foot decreases noise interference.
1.Twisted-pair cable
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together.
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and
the other is used only as a ground reference.
Twisted-pair cable(contd.)

Advantages: Applications
• Cheap • Very common medium
• Easy to work
with • Can be use in telephone network
Disadvantages:
• Connection Within the buildings
• Low data rate
• Short range
• For local area networks (LAN)
Contd..
i). Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

• The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is

referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
• Pair of unshielded wires wound around each other
• Easy to install
i). Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.

Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
•Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have
low-speed data.
•Category 2: It can support up to 4Mbps and it is suitable for
voice data communication.
•Category 3: It can support up to 16Mbps.
•Category 4: It can support up to 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be
used for long-distance communication.
•Category 5: It can support up to 200Mbps and it is used in local
area network.
 Contd..
advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
•It is cheap.
•Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
•It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
•This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of
attenuation.
ii). Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)

• STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each
pair of insulated conductors.
• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh
surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.
• Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the
penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
 Contd..
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
•The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and
not very low.
•An installation of STP is easy.
•It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair
cable.
•It has a higher attenuation.
•It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
•Disadvantages
•It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
•It has a higher attenuation rate.
2. Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency
ranges than those in twisted pair cable.
• Inner conductor is a solid wire
• Outer conductor serves as a shield against noise and a second
conductor
 Contd..
•Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for
example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
•The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors
parallel to each other.
•It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
•The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper,
and the outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle
core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner
conductor from the outer conductor.
•The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas
the copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic
interference).
Categories of coaxial cables

Category Use
Cable TV,
RG-6
Internet
RG-59 CCTV

RG-11 HDTV
 Coaxial Cable
Applications
• Long distance telephone transmission
• Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
• Short distance computer systems links - Local area networks

AD VAN TAGE DISADVANTAGE

S S
• Easy to wire • Single cable failure can take down an
entire network
• Easy to expand
• Cost of installation of a coaxial cable
is
high due to its thickness and stiffness
• Cost of maintenance is also high
Fiber-Optic
Cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is
moving through a single uniform substance.

• If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters

another substance(of a different density), the ray changes direction.
 Optical Fiber
 consists of three concentric sections

plastic jacket glass or

cover
plastic Fiber core and
clading

• Core: consists of one or more very thin strands or fibers made of

glass or plastic
• Each fiber is surrounded by its own cladding, a glass or
plastic coating that has optical properties different from the core
• Jacket: a plastic or other material acts as a layer to
protect
against moisture, crushing, and other environmental dangers.
Fiber-Optic
Cable(Contd.)
• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A
glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense
glass or plastic.
• An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of
three concentric sections: the core, the cladding, and the
jacket(outer part of the cable).
Areas of
Application
 Telecommunicati
ons

 Local Area
Networks

 Cable TV

 CCTV

 Medical
Education
2
Optical Fiber Disadvantages
• Installation and maintenance need expertise

• Only Unidirectional light propagation, two fibers

are needed for bidirectional

• Much more expensive

Optical FiberAdvantages

Greater capacity and Lower attenuation (signal loss)

• Example: Data rates at 100 Gbps
• Smaller size & light weight
• A signal can run for 50 km without requiring
regeneration. We need
repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair
cable.
• Highly Secure(no light leaking)
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a

physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.
1. Radio Waves
2. Microwaves
3. Infrared
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in

several ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-
sight propagation, as shown in Figure
Ground propagation:
Radio waves travel through the
lowest portion of the atmosphere
Touching the earth.

Sky propagation:
Radio waves radiate to the
ionosphere then they are reflected
back to earth.

Line-of-Sight Propagation:
In straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna.

4
1
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Unguided Media – Radio
Waves
 Omnidirectional
Antenna
 Frequencies between
3
KHz and 1 GHz.

 Used for
multicasts(multiple
way)
communications,
such as radio and
television, and
paging system.
 Radio waves can
penetrate buildings
easily, so that
2
widely use for
 Infrared
 Frequencies between 300 GHz to 400 THz.
 Used for short-range communication
 Example: Night Vision Camera,Remote control, File
sharing between two phones, Communication between a
PC and peripheral device,
 Micro waves Transmission
• Microwaves are unidirectional
• Micro waves electromagnetic waves having frequency between 1
GHZ and 300 GHZ.
• There are two types of micro waves data communication system
: terrestrial and satellite
• Micro waves are widely used for one to one
communication
between sender and receiver,
Example: cellular phone, satellite networks and in wireless LANs(wifi),
GPS
 Switched
• network Series
Switche network: of
d interlinked nodes, called
switches.

• Switch Devices capable of creating

connectionstemporary
es: between two or more devices linked to the
switches . Some of these switches are connected to the
end systems ( computers or telephones) . Others used
only for routing
 SWITCHING DEFINITION
In a computer network where many different computers are
connected to each other, there can be more than one path to send
data from one computer to another. Selecting a path that data must
take out of the available options is called switching.

There are three main switching techniques which are used. Circuit
Switching, Message Switching and Packet Switching
 1.Circuit Switching
• In circuit switching circuit is established between the two ends.
It provides a dedicated path for data to travel from one to the
other end. Resources are reserved at intermediate switches
which are used during the transmission.
• The intermediate switches are connected by the physical links.
Once the circuit is established, the entire data travels over the
dedicated path from one end to the other end. As soon as data
transfer completes, the circuit is disconnected
• i.e. Three phases are need to communicate two
parties or multiple parties in a conference call):
• Connection setup
• data transfer
• Connection teardown
• The setup phase: means creating dedicated channels
between the switches.

• Data Transfer Phase: After the establishment of the

dedicated circuit (channels), the two parties can
transfer data.

• Teardown Phase: When one of the parties needs to

disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to release the
resources.
Contd..
• Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer

• Data transferred between the two stations are not

packetized. The data are a continuous flow sent by the
source station and received by the destination station

• There is no addressing involved during data

transfer. Of course, there is end-to-end addressing used
during the setup phase.
The advantages of Circuit Switching is that
•A well defined and dedicated path exists for the data to travel.
•There is no waiting time at any switch and the data is
transmitted without any delay.
•Data always reaches the other end in order.
Circuit switching has the following disadvantages-
•The channel is blocked for duration of transmission.
•It is inefficient in terms of utilization of system resources.
•The time required for establishing the circuit between the two
ends is too long.
•It requires more bandwidth and is more expensive
Del
ay
 2. Message Switching
• In message switching there is no dedicated path to transfer data
from sender to receiver. The message carries a header that
contains the full information about the destination.
• The message is only forwarded from hop to hop. When any
intermediate switch receives the message, it stores the entire
message.
• The message is stored until sufficient resources become
available to transfer it to the next switch. When resources
become available, the switch forwards the message to the next
switch. This is called as Store and Forward technique.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then
forward it to the next node. This type of network is known
as store and forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent
entity.
2. Message Switching
The advantages of Message Switching is that the
•Channel is not blocked and more devices can share the
channel
•It is helpful in reducing traffic congestion as the
message can be temporarily stored in the route and then
forwarded whenever required.
The disadvantages of Message Switching are
•It requires enough storage at every switch to
accommodate the entire message during the transmission.
•It is extremely slow due to store and forward technique
•Message has to wait until sufficient resources become
available to transfer it to the next switch.
3.Packet Switching
•The packet switching is a switching technique in which the
message is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
•The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and
packets are given a unique number to identify their order at the
receiving end.
•Every packet contains some information in its headers such as
source address, destination address and sequence number.
•Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
•All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct
order.
•If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be
sent to resend the message.
•If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
acknowledgment message will be sent.
3.Packet Switching
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
1. Datagram Packet switching:
•It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a
datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet
contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
•The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
•In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
•Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the
packets.
•Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless
switching.
 DATAGRAM
NETWORKS
• Each packet (called as datagrams in this approach) is treated
independently of all others
• All packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message may
travel different paths to reach their destination .
2. Virtual Circuit Switching
•Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented
switching.
•In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is
established before the messages are sent.
•Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.
•In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical
connection
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit
switching through a diagram:
 Contd..
•In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver
respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
•Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a
connection between the sender and receiver.
•When a route is established, data will be transferred.
•After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by
the receiver that the message has been received.
•If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent
for the termination.
 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT
• It ’s
NETWORKS
cross between circuit switched and
network,
a network
and has some characteristics of datagram
both.

 Characteristics:
 Packets from a single message travel along the same
path.
 Three phases to transfer data (set up, data transfer and
tear down)
 Resources can be allocated during setup phase
 Data are packetized and each packet carries an address
in the
header
 Implemented in data link layer
Advantages Of Packet Switching:
•Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices
do not require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so
cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the
packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
•Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted.
This ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
•Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not
require any established path prior to the transmission, and many
users can use the same communication channel simultaneously,
hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages of packet switching:

•Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those

applications that require low delay and high-quality services.
•The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very
complex and requires high implementation cost.
•If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires
retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of
critical information if errors are nor recovered.
 History of Internet
 More than 100 countries use the Internet. Millions of people are
users. Yet this extraordinary communication system only came into
being in 1969.

 In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research

organizations were standalone devices. Computers from different
manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another.

 The Advanced Research Projects Agency(ARPA) in the

Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to
connect computers so that the researchers they funded could
share their findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating
duplication of effort
 In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
meeting, ARPA presented its ideas . The idea was that each
host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer)
would be attached to a specialized computer, called an interface
message processor (IMP).

 Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as

well
as with its own attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was a reality.


Four nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles
(UCLA), the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB),
Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah,
were connected via the IMPs to form a network. Software called
the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication
between the hosts.
 INTERNET
• Internet is called the network of networks. It is a global
communication system that links together thousands of
individual networks.
• In other words, internet is a collection of interlinked computer
networks, connected by copper wires, fiber-optic cables,
wireless connections, etc.
• As a result, a computer can virtually connect to other
computers in any network. These connections allow users to
interchange messages, to communicate in real time (getting
instant messages and responses), to share data and programs
and to access limitless information.
 Basics of Internet Architecture
• Internet architecture is a meta-network, which refers to a
congregation of thousands of distinct networks interacting with
a common protocol. In simple terms, it is referred as an
internetwork that is connected using protocols. Protocol used is
TCP/IP.
• protocol connects any two networks that differ in hardware,
software and design.
• TCP/IP provides end to end transmission, i.e., each and every
node on one network has the ability to communicate with any
other node on the network.
Layers of Internet Architecture
• Internet architecture consists of three layers.

IP:(Internet protocol)
• In order to communicate, we need our data to be encapsulated
as Internet Protocol (IP) packets. These IP packets travel
across number of hosts in a network through routing to reach
the destination. However IP does not support error detection
and error recovery, and is incapable of detecting loss of
Contd..
TCP
• TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol". It provides
end to end transmission of data, i.e., from source to destination.
It is a very complex protocol as it supports recovery of lost
packets.
Application Protocol
• Third layer in internet architecture is the application layer
which has different protocols on which the internet services are
built. Some of the examples of internet services include email
(SMTP facilitates email feature), file transfer (FTP facilitates
file transfer feature), etc
THE INTERNET
TODAY
 The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The
Internet today is not a simple hierarchical structure. It is
made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by
connecting devices and switching stations.
 It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the
Internet because it is
continually changing-new networks are being added,
existing networks are adding addresses, and networks of
defunct companies are being removed.
 Today most end users who want Internet connection use
the services of Internet service providers (lSPs). There are
international service providers, national service providers,
regional service providers, and local service providers.
 In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of
the core ARPANET group, collaborated
on what they called the Internetting Projec1

 Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to

achieve end- to-end delivery of packets. This paper on
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as
encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway.

 Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into

two protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internetworking Protocol (lP). IP would handle datagram routing
while TCP would be responsible for higher-level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection. The
internetworking protocol became known as TCPIIP.
 The Internet today is run by private companies, not the
government. Below figure shows a conceptual (not geographic)
view of the Internet.