Performance

Characteristics of
Sensors and
Actuators
Input and Output
• Sensors
Input: stimulus or measurand (temperature
pressure, light intensity, etc.)
Ouput: electrical signal (voltage, current
frequency, phase, etc.)
Variations: output can sometimes be displacement (thermometers,
magnetostrictive and piezoelectric sensors). Some sensors combine
sensing and actuation
Input and Output
• Actuators
Input: electrical signal (voltage, current
frequency, phase, etc.)
Output: mechanical(force, pressure, displacement) or display
function (dial indication, light, display, etc.)
Transfer function
• Relation between input and output
• Other names:
• Input output characteristic function
• transfer characteristic function
• response
Transfer function (cont.)
• Linear or nonlinear
• Single valued or not
• One dimensional or multi dimensional
• Single input, single output
• Multiple inputs, single output
• In most cases:
• Difficult to describe mathematically (given graphically)
• Often must be defined from calibration data
• Often only defined on a portion of the range of the device
Transfer function (cont.)
• T1 to T2 - approximately linear
• Most useful range
• Typically a small portion of the range
• Often taken as linear

S = f(x)
Transfer function (cont.)
• Other data from transfer function
• saturation
• sensitivity
• full scale range (input and output)
• hysteresis
• deadband
• etc.
Transfer function (cont.)
• Other types of transfer functions
• Response with respect to a given quantity
• Performance characteristics (reliability curves, etc.)
• Viewed as the relation between any two characteristics
Impedance and impedance
matching
• Input impedance: ratio of the rated voltage and the resulting current
through the input port of the device with the output port open (no
load)
• Output impedance: ratio of the rated output voltage and short circuit
current of the port (i.e. current when the output is shorted)
• These are definitions for two-port devices
Impedance (cont.)
• Sensors: only output impedance is relevant
• Actuators: only input impedance is relevant
• Can also define mechanical impedance
• Not needed - impedance is important for interfacing
• Will only talk about electrical impedance
Impedance (cont.)
• Why is it important? It affects performance
• Example: 500  sensor (output impedance) connected to a
processor
• b. Processor input impedance is infinite
• c. Processor input impedance is 500 
Impedance (cont.)
• Example. Strain gauge: impedance is 500  at zero
strain, 750  at measured strain
• b: sensor output: 2.5V (at zero strain), 3V at
measured strain
• c. sensor output: 1.666V to 1.875V
• Result:
• Loading in case c.
• Reduced sensitivity(smaller output change for the same
strain input)
• b. is better than c (in this case). Infinite impedance is
best.
Impedance (cont.)
• Current sensors: impedance is low - need low
impedance at processor
• Same considerations for actuators
• Impedance matching:
• Sometimes can be done directly (C-mos devices have
very high input impedances)
• Often need a matching circuit
• From high to low or from low to high impedances
Impedance (cont.)
• Impedance can (and often is) complex: Z=R+jX
• In addition to the previous:
• Conjugate matching (Zin=Zout*) - maximum power
transfer
• Critical for actuators!
• Usually not important for sensors
• Zin=R+jX, Zout*=R-jX.
• No reflection matching (Zin=Zout) - no reflection from
load
• Important at high frequencies (transmission lines)
• Equally important for sensors and actuators (antennas)
Range and Span
• Range: lowest and highest values of the stimulus
• Span: the arithmetic difference between the
highest and lowest values of the stimulus that can
be sensed within acceptable errors
• Input full scale (IFS) = span
• Output full scale (OFS): difference between the
upper and lower ranges of the output of the
sensor corresponding to the span of the sensor
• Dynamic range: ratio between the upper and
lower limits and is usually expressed in db
Range and Span (Cont)
• Example: a sensors is designed for: C to +80
C to output 2.5V to 1.2V
• Range: C and +80 C
• Span: 80 (30)=110 C
• Input full scale = 110 C
• Output full scale = 2.5V-1.2V=1.3V
• Dynamic range=20log(140/30)=13.38db
Range and Span (Cont)
• Range, span, full scale and dynamic range may be
applied to actuators in the same way
• Span and full scale may also be given in db when
the scale is large.
• In actuators, there are other properties that come
into play:
• Maximum force, torque, displacement
• Acceleration
• Time response, delays, etc.
Accuracy, errors, repeatability
• Errors: deviation from “ideal”
• Sources:
• materials used
• construction tolerances
• ageing
• operational errors
• calibration errors
• matching (impedance) or loading errors
• noise
• many others
Accuracy, errors (cont.)
• Errors: defined as follows:
• a. As a difference: e = V – V0 (V0 is the actual value,
V is that measured value (the stimulus in the case
of sensors or output in actuators).
• b. As a percentage of full scale (span for example)
e = t/(tmax-tmin)*100 where tmax and tmin are the
maximum and minimum values the device is
designed to operate at.
• c. In terms of the output signal expected.
Example: errors
• Example: A thermistor is used to measure
temperature between –30 and +80 C and produce
an output voltage between 2.8V and 1.5V.
Because of errors, the accuracy in sensing is
±0.5C.
 Example (cont)
• a. In terms of the input as ±0.5C
• b. Percentage of input: e = 0.5/(80+30)*100 = 0.454%
• c. In terms of output. From the transfer function: e= ±0.059V.
More on errors
• Static errors: not time dependent
• Dynamic errors: time dependent
• Random errors: Different errors in a parameter or at different
operating times
• Systemic errors: errors are constant at all times and conditions
Error limits - linear TF
• Linear transfer functions
• Error equal along the transfer function
• Error increases or decreases along TF
• Error limits - two lines that delimit the output
Error limits - nonlinear TF
• Nonlinear transfer functions
• Error change along the transfer
function
• Maximum error from ideal
• Average error
• Limiting curves follow ideal
transfer function
Error limits - nonlinear TF
• Calibration curve may be used
when available
• Lower errors
• Maximum error from calibration
curve
• Average error
• Limiting curves follow the actual
transfer function (calibration)
Repeatability
• Also called reproducibility: failure of the sensor or actuator to
represent the same value (i.e. stimulus or input) under identical
conditions when measured at different times.
• usually associated with calibration
• viewed as an error.
• given as the maximum difference between two readings taken at different
times under identical input conditions.
• error given as percentage of input full scale.
Sensitivity
• Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output for a given
change in input, usually a unit change in input. Sensitivity represents
the slope of the transfer function.
• Same for actuators
Sensitivity
• Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the change in output for a given
change in input, usually a unit change in input. Sensitivity represents
the slope of the transfer function.
• Same for actuators
Sensitivity (cont.)
• Example for a linear transfer function:
• Note the units
• a is the slope
• For the transfer function in (2):
Sensitivity (cont.)
• Usually associated with sensors
• Applies equally well to actuators
• Can be highly nonlinear along the transfer function
• Measured in units of output quantity per units of input quantity
(W/C, N/V, V/C, etc.)
Sensitivity analysis (cont.)
• A difficult task
• there is noise
• a combined function of sensitivities of various components, including that of
the transduction sections.
• device may be rather complex with multiple transduction steps, each one
with its own sensitivity, sources of noise and other parameters
• some properties may be known but many may not be known or may only be
approximate. Applies equally well to actuators
Sensitivity analysis (cont.)
• An important task
• provides information on the output range of signals one can expect,
• provides information on the noise and errors to expect.
• may provide clues as to how the effects of noise and errors may be minimized
• Provides clues on the proper choice of sensors, their connections and other
steps that may be taken to improve performance (amplifiers, feedback, etc.).
Example - additive errors
• Fiber optic pressure sensor
• Pressure changes the length of the fiber
• This changes the phase of the output
• Three transduction steps
Example-1 - no errors present
dy1 dy2 dy3
• Individual sensitivities s1 =
dx1
, s2 =
dx2
, s3 =
dx3

• Overall sensitivity S = s 1s2 s3 =

dy1 dy2 dy3
dx1 dx2 dx3

• But, x2=y1 (output of transducer S = s 1s2 s3 =

dy3
1 is the input to transducer 2) dx1
and x3=y2
 Example -1 - errors present

• First output is y1=y01 + y1. y01 =

Output without error
y2 = s 2 y10 + y1 + y2 = y20 + s 2y1 + y2
• 2nd output

• 3rd output y3 = s 3 y20 + s2 y1 + y2 + y3 = y30 + s2 s3 y1 + s3 y2 + y3

Last 3 terms - additive errors

Example -2 - differential sensors
• Output proportional to difference
between the outputs of the sensors
• Output is zero when T1=T2
• Common mode signals cancel (noise)
• Errors cancel (mostly)
Example -2 - (cont.)

dy1 dy2
s1 = , s2 =
dx1 dx2

y = y1  y2 = s1 x1  s 2yx

d y1  y2
s=
d x1  x2
Example -3 - sensors in series
• Output is in series
• Input in parallel (all sensors at same
temperature)
• Outputs add up
• Noise multiplied by product of
sensitivities

y = y1 + y2 + y3 + ... + yn = (s1 + s2 + s3 + ... + s n)x = nsx

S = ns
Hysteresis
• Hysteresis (literally lag)- the
deviation of the sensor’s output at
any given point when approached
from two different directions
• Caused by electrical or mechanical
systems
• Magnetization
• Thermal properties
• Loose linkages
Hysteresis - Example
• If temperature is measured, at a rated temperature of 50C, the
output might be 4.95V when temperature increases but 5.05V when
temperature decreases.
• This is an error of ±0.5% (for an output full scale of 10V in this
idealized example).
• Hysteresis is also present in actuators and, in the case of motion,
more common than in sensors.
Nonlinearity
• A property of the sensor (nonlinear transfer function) or:
• Introduced by errors
• Nonlinearity errors influence accuracy.
• Nonlinearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the ideal linear transfer
function.
• The latter is not usually known or useful
• Nonlinearity must be deduced from the actual transfer function or from the
calibration curve
• A few methods to do so:
Nonlinearity (cont.)
• a. by use of the range of the sensor/actuator
• Pass a straight line between the range points (line 1)
• Calculate the maximum deviation of the actual curve from this straight line
• Good when linearities are small and the span is small (thermocouples,
thermistors, etc.)
• Gives an overall figure for nonlinearity
Nonlinearity (cont.)
• b. by use of two points defining a portion of the
span of the sensor/actuator.
• Pass a straight line between the two points
• Extend the straight line to cover the whole span
• Calculate the maximum deviation of the actual curve
from this straight line
• Good when a device is used in a small part of its span
(i.e. a thermometer used to measure human body
temperatures
• Improves linearity figure in the range of interest
Nonlinearity (cont.)
• c. use a linear best fit(least squares) through the
points of the curve
• Take n points on the actual curve, xi,yi, i=1,2,…n.
• Assume the best fit is a line y=ax+b (line 2)
• Calculate a and b from the following:

n n n n n n n
n xiyi   xi  yi  xi2  yi   xi  xiyi
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
a= n n b= n n
2 2
n  xi2   xi n xi2   xi
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
Nonlinearity (cont.)

• d. use the tangent to the curve at some point on

the curve
• Take a point in the middle of the range of interest
• Draw the tangent and extend to the range of the curve (line 3)
• Calculate the nonlinearity as previously
• Only useful if nonlinearity is small and the span used very small
Saturation
• Saturation a property of sensors or actuators when they no longer
respond to the input.
• Usually at or near the ends of their span and indicates that the output
is no longer a function of the input or, more likely is a very nonlinear
function of the input.
• Should be avoided - sensitivity is small or nonexistent
• In actuators, it can lead to failure of the actuator (increase in power
loss, etc.)
Frequency response
• Frequency response: The ability of the device to respond to a
harmonic (sinusoidal) input
• A plot of magnitude (power, displacement, etc.) as a function of
frequency
• Indicates the range of the stimulus in which the device is usable
(sensors and actuators)
• Provides important design parameters
• Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of plots is the Bode
diagram of the device)
Frequency response (cont)

• Important design parameters

• Bandwidth (B-A, in Hz)
• Flat frequency range (D-C in Hz)
• Cutoff frequencies (points A and B in Hz)
• Resonant frequencies
Frequency response (cont.)
• Bandwidth: the distance in Hz between the half power points
• Half-power points: eh=0.707e, ph=0.5p
• Flat response range: maximum distance in Hz over which the
response is flat (based on some allowable error)
• Resonant frequency: the frequency (or frequencies) at which the
curve peaks or dips
Half power points
• Also called 3db points
• Power is 3db down at these points:
• 10*log0.5=3db or
• 20*log (sqrt(2)/2)=3db
• These points are arbitrary but are now standard.
• It is usually assumed that the device is “useless” beyond the half
power points
Frequency response (example.)
• Bandwidth: 16.5kHz-70Hz=16.43 kHz
• Flat frequency range: 10kHz-120Hz=9880 Hz
• Cutoff frequencies: 70 Hz and 16.5 kHz
• Resonance: 12 kHz
Response time
• response time (or delay time), indicates the time needed for the
output to reach steady state (or a given percentage of steady state)
for a step change in input.
• Typically the response time will be given as the time needed to reach
90% of steady state output upon exposure to a unit step change in
input.
• The response time of the device is due to the inertia of the device
(both “mechanical” and “electrical”).
Response time (cont.)
• Example: in a temperature sensor:
• the time needed for the sensor’s body to reach the
temperature it is trying to measure (thermal time
constant) or
• The electrical time constants inherent in the device due
to capacitances and inductances
• In most cases due to both
• Example: in an actuator:
• Due to mass of the actuator and whatever it is
actuating
• Due to electrical time constants
• Due to momentum
Response time (cont.)
• Fast response time is usually desirable (not always)
• Slow response times tend to average readings
• Large mechanical systems have slow response
times
• Smaller sensors and actuators will almost always
respond faster
• We shall meet sensors in which response time is
slowed down on purpose
Calibration
• Calibration: the experimental determination of the
transfer function of a sensor or actuator.
• Typically, needed when the transfer function is not
known or,
• When the device must be operated at tolerances
below those specified by the manufacturer.
• Example, use a thermistor with a 5% tolerance on
a full scale from 0 to 100C to measure
temperature with accuracy of, say, ±0.5C.
• The only way this can be done is by first
establishing the transfer function of the sensor.
Calibration (cont.)
• Two methods:
• a. known transfer function:
• Determine the slope and crossing point (line function) from two
known stimuli (say two temperatures) if the transfer function is
linear
• Measure the output
• Calculate the slope and crossing point in V=aT+b
• If the function is more complex, need more points: V = aT + bT2 +
cT3 + d
• 4 measurements to calculate a,b,c,d
• Must choose points judiciously - if linear, use points close to the
range. If not, use equally spaced points or points around the
locations of highest curvature
Calibration (cont.)
• Two methods:
• b. Unknown transfer function:
• Measure the output Ri at as many input values Ti as is practical
• Use the entire span
• Calculate a best linear fit (least squares for example)
• If the curve is not linear use a polynomial fit
• May use piecewise linear segments if the number of points is
large.
Calibration (cont.)
• Calibration is sometimes an operational
requirement (thermocouples, pressure sensors)
• Calibration data is usually supplied by the
manufacturer
• Calibration procedures must be included with the
design documents
• Errors due to calibration must be evaluated and
specified
Resolution
• Resolution: the minimum increment in stimulus to
which it can respond. It is the magnitude of the
input change which results in the smallest
discernible output.
• Example: a digital voltmeter with resolution of
0.1V is used to measure the output of a sensor.
The change in input (temperature, pressure, etc.)
that will provide a change of 0.1V on the voltmeter
is the resolution of the sensor/voltmeter system.
Resolution (cont.)
• Resolution is determined by the whole system, not only by
the sensor
• The resolution of the sensor may be better than that of the
system.
• The sensor itself must interact with a processor, the
limiting factor on resolution may be the sensor or the
processor.
• Resolution may be specified in the units of the stimulus
(0.5C for a temperature sensor, 1 mT for a magnetic field
sensor, 0.1mm for a proximity sensor, etc) or may be
specified as a percentage of span (0.1% for example).
Resolution (cont.)
• In digital systems, resolution may be specified in bits (1 bit
or 6 bit resolution)
• In analog systems (those that do not digitize the output)
the output is continuous and resolution may be said to be
infinitesimal (for the sensor or actuator alone).
• Resolution of an actuator is the minimum increment in its
output which it can provide.
• Example: a stepper motor may have 180 steps per
revolution. Its resolution is 2.
• A graduated analog voltmeter may be said to have a
resolution equal to one graduation (say 0.01V). ( higher
resolution may be implied by the user who can easily
interpolated between two graduations.
Other parameters
• Reliability: a statistical measure of quality of a
device which indicates the ability of the device to
perform its stated function, under normal
operating conditions without failure for a stated
period of time or number of cycles.
• Given in hours, years or in MTBF
• Usually provided by the manufacturer
• Based on accelerated lifetime testing
Other parameters
• Deadband: the lack of response or insensitivity of
a device over a specific range of the input.
• In this range which may be small, the output
remains constant.
• A device should not operate in this range unless
this insensitivity is acceptable.
• Example, an actuator which is not responding to
inputs around zero may be acceptable but one
which “freezes” over a normal range may not be.
Other parameters
• Excitation: The electrical supply required for operation of a
sensor or actuator.
• It may specify the range of voltages under which the device
should operate (say 2 to 12V), range of current, power
dissipation, maximum excitation as a function of
temperature and sometimes frequency.
• Part of the data sheet for the device
• Together with other specifications it defines the normal
operating conditions of the sensor.
• Failure to follow rated values may result in erroneous
outputs or premature failure of the device.
Connecting Sensors to
Microcontrollers
sensor µC keypad
signal timing
• Analog sensor memory display
instrument
• many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D
• 8-bit to 12-bit common
• many have multi-channel A/D inputs
• Digital
• serial I/O
• use serial I/O port, store in memory to analyze
• synchronous (with clock)
• must match byte format, stop/start bits, parity check, etc.
• asynchronous (no clock): more common for comm. than data
• must match baud rate and bit width, transmission protocol, etc.
• frequency encoded
• use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency

Dr. Abdelnasir
Connecting Smart Sensors to
PC/Network
• “Smart sensor” = sensor with built-in signal processing & communication
• e.g., combining a “dumb sensor” and a microcontroller
• Data Acquisition Cards (DAQ)
• PC card with analog and digital I/O
• interface through LabVIEW or user-generated code
• Communication Links Common for Sensors
• asynchronous serial comm.
• universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
• 1 receive line + 1 transmit line. nodes must match baud rate & protocol
• RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (but at +/- 12V)
• can buy a chip to convert from UART to RS232
• synchronous serial comm.
• serial peripheral interface (SPI)
• 1 clock + 1 bidirectional data + 1 chip select/enable
• I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus
• designed by Philips for comm. inside TVs, used in several commercial sensor systems
• IEEE P1451: Sensor Comm. Standard
• several different sensor comm. protocols for different applications

Dr. Abdelnasir
Sensor Calibration
• Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
• offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
• nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
• cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g., temperature

• Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter

r
• analog signal conditioning
linea T1
• look-up table
• digital calibration ar
• T = a + bV +cV2, n o n -l i n e T2

offset
• T= temperature; V=sensor voltage;
• a,b,c = calibration coefficients
T3
• Compensation
• remove secondary sensitivities
• must have sensitivities characterized
• can remove with polynomial evaluation
• P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e V2, where P=pressure, T=temperature

Dr. Abdelnasir