MODULE - 2

Classification of Hazards
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS
Earthquake

Volcanic Eruptions

Tsunamis

Endogenic Hazards

Landslides

Avalanches

Natural Radioactivity
Terrestrial Hazard
(planetary)
Natural Disasters
Environmental

Extra Terrestrial Climatic hazards

Hazard (Extra
Planetary)
hazards

Chronic
Physical

Exogenic Hazards Hydrologic

Technological
Anthropogenic Hazard
(Man-made hazard
Meteorological
Biological

Infrequent Events
Social
 VOLCANOES
• Volcanos is an opening on the earth surface or crust
through which molten lava, volcanic gases like water
vapour, CO2, H2S, CO and fragments of rocks are
ejected from the interior of earth to its surface.
• Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are
diverging or converging.
• At the mid ocean ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from
one another. The crust is very thin at mid ocean ridges
due to the pull of tectonic plates. The release of pressure
due to the thinning of the crust leads to adiabatic
expansion and the partial melting of the mantle causing
volcanism and creating new oceanic crust.
 VOLCANOES
• Subduction Zones
• Places where two plates usually an oceanic plate and a
continental plate collide.
• The oceanic plate submerge under the continental plate
forming a deep ocean trench just offshore.
• Water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting
temperature of the mantle, thus giving rise to viscous
substance called magma.

• Types of Volcanoes
• Les Volcans Rouges (Red Volcanoes) : Emit red lava – found in
mid oceanic islands
• Les Volcans Gris (Grey Volcanoes) : Creates explosive eruptions
contains grey ash – found in islands or edges of continents.
 VOLCANOES
• Based on Activities
• Active Volcanoes: Volcanoes that erupt regularly
• Eg. Along Pacific “Ring of Fire”. US is home to 50 active
volcanoes.

• Dormant Volcanoes: Erupted in historical times – but

remained dormant for many years.
• Eg. Four Peaked Mountains in Alaska formed in 8000BC, but
erupted in September 2006

• Extinct Volcanoes: Volcanoes that have no previous record

of eruption and have remained quiet are called as extinct
or dead volcanoes
• Volcanoes on the Hawaiian, Emperor sea mount chain in
pacific ocean.
 VOLCANOES
• Volcanic Features – Depending upon shape

1. Fissure vents – are flat, linear cracks through which lava

emerges.
2. Shield Volcanoes – broad, shield like formed by eruption of
low viscosity lava that can flow over large distance from
vent and generally do not explode.
3. Lava Domes – have cone like structure with steep slopes –
caused by violent and explosive eruptions with thick and
highly viscous.
4. Ash and Cindercones – Molten Lava flows from the volcano
vent into the atmosphere to form lava fountains – containes
small, solid fragments of ash and rock.
 EARTHQUAKES
• An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or
temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth
resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
• Earthquake Magnitude is a measure of the strength of an
earthquake as calculated from records of the event made
on a calibrated seismograph.
 EARTHQUAKES
• Earthquake intensity is a measure of the effects of an
earthquake at a particular place. It is determined from
observations of the earthquake's effects on people, structures
and the earth's surface.

• Among the many existing scales, the Modified Mercalli Intensity

Scale of 12 degrees, symbolized as MM, is frequently used.

• In short earthquakes are caused by faulting, a sudden lateral or

vertical movement of rock along a rupture (break) surface
 EARTHQUAKES
• Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake hazards can be categorized as either direct hazards or indirect
hazards.
• Direct Hazards
• Ground shaking;
• Differential ground settlement;
• Soil liquefaction;
• Immediate landslides or mud slides, ground lurching and avalanches;
• Permanent ground displacement along faults;
• Floods from tidal waves, Sea Surges & Tsunamis
• Indirect Hazards
• Dam failures;
• Pollution from damage to industrial plants;
• Delayed landslides.

• Most of the damage due to earthquakes is the result of strong ground

shaking. For large magnitude events, trembling has been felt over more
than 5 million sq. km.
 EARTHQUAKES
• Site Risks: Some common site risks are:
•
(i) Slope Risks - Slope instability, triggered by strong shaking may cause
landslides. Rocks or boulders can roll considerable distances.
•
(ii) Natural Dams - Landslides in irregular topographic areas may create
natural dams, which may collapse when they are filled. This can lead to
potentially catastrophic avalanches after strong seismic shaking.
•
(iii) Volcanic Activity - Earthquakes may be associated with potential
volcanic activity and may occasionally be considered as precursory
phenomena. Ash falls and/or pyroclastic flows, volcanic lava or mudflows
and volcanic gases normally follow explosive eruptions.
 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
• Ground shaking is the most familiar effect of earthquakes. It is a result of
the passage of seismic waves through the ground, and ranges from quite
gentle in small earthquakes to incredibly violent in large earthquakes.
• In the 27 March 1964 Alaskan earthquake, for example, strong ground
shaking lasted for as much as 7 minutes!
• Buildings can be damaged or destroyed, people and animals have trouble
standing up or moving around, and objects can be tossed around due to
strong ground shaking in earthquakes.
• However, you should note that, while many people are killed in
earthquakes, none are actually killed directly by the shaking -- if you were
out in an open field during a magnitude 9 earthquake, you would be
extremely scared, but your chance of dying would be zero. It is only
because we persist in building buildings, highways, and the like that
people are killed; it's our responsibility, not the earthquake's.
•
On December 26 2004, an earthquake in the Indian Ocean measuring
9.0 on the Richter scale set off one that struck at 10 Asian and three
African countries, leaving over 226,000 people dead.
Mitigation Measures: Before an Earthquake

Learn about causes and effects.

• Speak about them in a calm and composed manner.

• Keep a torch light and a working transistor radio with spare batteries.

• Keep an updated list of telephone numbers like Doctor, Fire, Police and
District Administration, Ambulance, water, electricity, etc. and all your
family members will know them.

• Arrange your home in such a manner that it is easy to move around.

• Attach shelves, gas cylinders, flower pots etc., to the walls of the room.
Place heavy objects on the floor or in lower shelves

• Teach all members of your family how to turn off electricity and gas
supply.
Mitigation Measures: During an Earthquake

• Keep calm and keep others calm

• Do not panic

Mitigation Measures: After an Earthquake

• Maintenance of law and order, prevention of trespassing, looting

etc.
• Evacuation of people
• Recovery of dead bodies and their disposal
• Medical care for the injured
• Supply of food and drinking water
• Temporary shelters like tents, metal sheds etc.
• Repairing lines of communication and information
• Restoring transport routes
 LANDSLIDES
• Landslides can be caused by many factors including earthquakes,
storms, volcanic eruptions, fire and human modification of land.
• The most deadly landslides are the ones that occur quickly, often
with little notice. In a landslide, masses of rock, earth or debris
move down a slope.
• Debris and mud flows are rivers of rock, earth and other debris
saturated with water. They develop during intense rainfall, runoff,
or rapid snowmelt, changing the earth into a flowing river of mud
or “slurry.”
• They can flow rapidly, striking with little or no warning at
avalanche speeds (faster than a person can run).
• They also can travel many miles from their source, growing in
size as they pick up trees, boulders, cars and other materials.
• Debris flows don’t always stay in stream channels and they can
flow sideways as well as downhill.
 LANDSLIDES
• Causes of Landslides
• Undercutting of a slope by stream erosion, wave action, glaciers, or human
activity such as road building
• Intense or prolonged rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or sharp fluctuations in
ground-water levels
• Shocks or vibrations caused by earthquakes or construction activity,
Loading on upper slopes, or
• A combination of these and other factors

• Effects of Human activity

• Slope failures can be triggered by construction activity that undercuts or
overloads dangerous slopes
• Construction activity can also redirect the flow of surface or ground-water.
• Poorly planned forest clearing may increase rates of surface water run-off
or ground-water infiltration
• Inefficient irrigation or sewage effluent disposal practices may result in
increased ground water pressures, which in turn can reduce the stability of
rock and sediment.
Mitigation Measures: Before an landslide
• To begin preparing, you should build an emergency kit and make a family
communications plan.

• Make a plan for your household, including your pets, so that you and your
family know what to do, where to go, and what you will need to protect
yourselves from landslides

• Connect with your local emergency services, heed evacuation warnings.

Mitigation Measures: During an landslide

• Listen to local news stations on a battery-powered radio for warnings.

• Heed all warnings and evacuation notices

• During a storm that could cause a landslide, stay alert and awake. Many
deaths from landslides occur while people are sleeping.

• If you do get stuck in the path of a landslide move uphill as quickly as

possible.

• Avoid river valleys and low-lying areas during times of danger.

Mitigation Measures: After an landslide

• Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
• Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
• Watch for flooding. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because
they may both be started by the same conditions.
• Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct
slidearea. Direct rescuers to their locations.
• Report broken utility lines and damaged roadways and railways to appropriate
authorities. Reporting potential hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as
possible, preventing further hazard and injury
• Allow trained professionals to check the building foundation, chimney, and
surrounding land for damage.
• Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground
cover can lead to flash flooding and additional landslides in the near future.
• Seek advice from a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or
designing
corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk.
• A professional will be able to advise you
of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard.
 Impact of Landslides:
Short-term
• Loss of life
• Loss of property
Long- term
• Changes in landscape
• Loss of cultivable land
• Soil erosion and soil loss
• Relocation of population

Pune Landslide 2014:

• Heavy rains triggered a landslide in Pune in 2014 killing hundreds of people
• Environmentalists claimed that the landslide was a human-induced landslide.
• Deforestation and levelling of ground for cultivation were pointed out as the
primary reasons for the landslide
• Heavy machinery such as backhoes were used to level the slopes, which has
contributed to loosening the soil to such an extent that it has impacted the
hill’s drainage of water
• The windmill project had also led to large-scale erosion in the region
 AVALANCHE

• An avalanche is a large amount of snow moving quickly down a

mountain, typically on slopes greater than 30 to 45 degrees. When
an avalanche stops, the snow becomes solid like concrete and
people are unable to dig out. People caught in avalanches can die
from suffocation, trauma or hypothermia.

Avalanches can:
• Be caused by people, new snow and wind.
• Move at speeds of 60 to 80 MPH.
• Peak during the period of December through March
Avalanches Risk
• Know the signs of increased danger, including recent
avalanches and shooting cracks across slopes.
• Avoid areas of increased risk, such as slopes steeper than 30 degrees or
areas under steep slopes.
• Get training on how to recognize hazardous conditions and avalanche-
prone locations.

Preparing for Avalanche

• Get proper equipment to protect yourself from head injuries and create air
pockets.
• Receive first aid training so you can recognize and treat suffocation,
hypothermia, traumatic injury and shock.
• Wear a helmet to help reduce head injuries and create air pockets. Wear an
avalanche beacon to help rescuers locate you.
• Use an avalanche airbag that may help you from being completely buried.
• Carry a collapsible avalanche probe and a small shovel to help rescue
others.
 TSUNAMI
• Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or
volcanic eruptions under the sea.
• Out in the depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do not
dramatically increase in height.
• But as the waves travel inland, they build up to higher and
higher heights as the depth of the ocean decreases.
• The speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth
rather than the distance from the source of the wave.
• Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes over deep
waters, only slowing down when reaching shallow waters.
 TSUNAMI
• A tsunami can kill or injure people and damage or destroy
buildings and infrastructure as waves come in and go out.
• A tsunami is a series of enormous ocean waves caused by
earthquakes, underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions, or
asteroids.

• Tsunamis can:
• Travel 20-30 miles per hour with waves 10-100 feet high.
• Cause flooding and disrupt transportation, power,
communications, and the water supply.
• Happen anywhere along U.S. coasts. Coasts that border the
Pacific Ocean or Caribbean have the greatest risk.
 TSUNAMI
• A tsunami can kill or injure people and damage or destroy
buildings and infrastructure as waves come in and go out.
• A tsunami is a series of enormous ocean waves caused by
earthquakes, underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions, or
asteroids.

• Tsunamis can:
• Travel 20-30 miles per hour with waves 10-100 feet high.
• Cause flooding and disrupt transportation, power,
communications, and the water supply.
• Happen anywhere along U.S. coasts. Coasts that border the
Pacific Ocean or Caribbean have the greatest risk.
 TSUNAMI
• Measures for Safety from Tsunamis and Storm Surges in Coastal areas:

Structural measures:

1. Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coast line

2. Development of a network of local knowledge centers (rural/urban) along the coast

lines to provide necessary training and emergency communication during crisis time

(e.g. centers developed by M.S. Swaminathan Foundation in Pondicherry)

3. Construction of location specific sea walls and coral reefs in consultation with

experts.

4. Development of break waters along the coast to provide necessary cushion against

tsunami hazards

5. Development of tsunami detection, forecasting and warning dissemination centres.

6. Development of a “Bio-Shield” - a narrow strip of land along coastline.

 TSUNAMI
• Measures for Safety from Tsunamis and Storm Surges in Coastal areas:

Non-Structural Measures:

1. Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations (within 500 m of the high tide line

with elevation of less than 15 m above.

2. Mapping the coastal area for multiple hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis up to taluka

/village level.

3. Capacity building requirements for the local people and the administration for facing the

disasters in wake of tsunami and cyclone

4. Developing tools and techniques for risk transfer in highly vulnerable areas

5. Launching a series of public awareness campaign throughout the coastal area

6. Training of local administration in forecasting warning dissemination and evacuation

techniques

7. Awareness generation and training among the fishermen,coast guards, officials from

Fisheries department and port authorities and local district officials etc., in connection with

evacuation and post tsunami storm surge management activities.

EXOGENIC HAZARDS
 CYCLONES
• Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances
around a low pressure area distinguished by swift and
often destructive air circulation.

• They are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad

weather.

• Cyclones can be the most intense storms on Earth.

• A cyclone is a system of winds rotating counterclockwise

in the Northern Hemisphere around a low pressure
center.

• The swirling air rises and cools, creating clouds and

precipitation.
• An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone. An anticyclone’s winds
rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere around a center of
high pressure.
• Air comes in from above and sinks to the ground.

High pressure centers generally have fair weather.

There are two types of cyclones:

• middle latitude (mid-latitude) cyclones
• tropical cyclones.

 Mid-latitude cyclones are the main cause of winter storms in the

middle latitudes.
 Tropical cyclones are also known as hurricanes.
 CYCLONES
• Mid-latitude cyclones, sometimes called extratropical cyclones,
form at the polar front when the temperature difference
between two air masses is large.
• These air masses blow past each other in opposite directions.
Coriolis Effect deflects winds to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere, causing the winds to strike the polar front at an
angle.
• Warm and cold fronts form next to each other.
• Most winter storms in the middle latitudes, including most of
the
United States and Europe, are caused by mid-latitude cyclones.
• The warm air at the cold front rises and creates a low pressure
cell. Winds rush into the low pressure and create a rising
column of air.
• The air twists, rotating counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 HURRICANES
Tropical cyclones have many names. They are called
• hurricanes in the North Atlantic & eastern Pacific oceans,
• typhoons in the western Pacific Ocean,
• tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean,
• and willi-willi’s in the waters near Australia.

By any name, they are the most damaging storms on Earth.

• Hurricanes arise in the tropical latitudes (between 10 degrees and
25 degrees N) in summer and autumn when sea surface
temperature are 28 degrees C (82 degrees F) or higher.
• The warm seas create a large humid air mass. The warm air rises
and forms a low pressure cell, known as a tropical depression.
• Thunderstorms materialize around the tropical depression.If the
temperature reaches or exceeds 28 degrees C (82 degrees F) the
air begins to rotate around the low pressure (counterclockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere).
 CYCLONES
Prevention & Mitigation
NCRMP – National Cyclone Risk Mitigation plan
• upgrade cyclone forecasting, tracking and warning systems,
• build capacity in multi-hazard risk management
• Construct major infrastructures including multi-purpose cyclone
shelters and embankments.
Principal Components:
The major components under the scheme are:
• Community mobilisation and training
• Cyclone Risk Mitigation Infrastructure (construction of cyclone
shelters, roads/missing links and construction/repair of Saline
Embankments etc.)
• Technical assistance for capacity building on Disaster Risk
Management (risk assessment, damage and need assessment)
• Capacity Building and knowledge creation along with project
management and implementation support
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP)
Objective: To assist the Government in building the national capacity for
implementation of a comprehensive coastal management approach in the
country and piloting the integrated coastal zone management approach in
states of Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal.

Four Components:
1. Capacity Building: It includes mapping, delineation and demarcation of
the hazard lines, and delineation of coastal sediment cells all along the
mainland coast of India.
2. Piloting ICZM approaches in Gujarat: This component will support
capacity building of the state level agencies and institutions, including
preparation of an ICZM plan for the coastal sediment cell that includes the
Gulf of Kachchh and pilot investments.
3. Piloting ICZM approaches in Orissa: It provides for capacity building of
the state level agencies and institutions, including preparation of an ICZM
plan for the coastal sediment cells (the stretches of Paradip-Dhamra and
Gopalpur-Chilika), including a regional coastal process study, and pilot
investments.
4. Piloting ICZM approaches in West Bengal
 THUNDERSTORMS & LIGHTNING
Lightning is a leading cause of injury and death from
weather-related hazards. Although most lightning victims
survive, people struck by lightning often report a variety of
long-term,
debilitating symptoms(affecting the regular activities).

Thunderstorms are dangerous storms that include

lightning and can create or cause:
• Powerful winds over 50 mph
• Hail
• Flash flooding and/or tornadoes
Stay Safe During Thunderstorms & Lightning
If you are under a thunderstorm warning:
• When thunder roars, go indoors! Move from outdoors into a
building or car with a roof.
• Pay attention to alerts and warnings.
• Avoid using electronic devices connected to an electrical outlet.
• Avoid running water.
• Do not drive through flooded roadways. Just six inches of
fast-moving water can knock you down, and one foot of moving
water can sweep your vehicle away.

Stay Safe After Thunderstorms & Lightning

• Pay attention to authorities and weather forecasts for
information on whether it is safe to go outside and instructions
regarding potential flash flooding.
• Watch for fallen power lines and trees. Report them immediately.
 FLOODS
Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is
normally dry. Floods can happen during heavy rains, when
ocean waves come on shore, when snow melts quickly, or
when dams break.

Floods can occur within minutes or over a long

period, and may last days, weeks, or longer. Floods are the
most common and widespread of all weather-related
natural disasters.

Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods,

because they combine the destructive power of a flood
with incredible speed. Flash floods occur when heavy
rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it.
 FLOODS

Causes
The main causes of floods are
• heavy rainfall,
• inadequate capacity of rivers to carry the high flood discharge,
• Inadequate drainage to carry away the rainwater quickly to
streams/ rivers.
• Landslides blocking streams; typhoons and cyclones also
cause floods.
• The flood hazard is compounded by the problems of sediment
deposition, drainage congestion and synchronization of river
floods with sea tides in the coastal plains.
Major Anthropogenic factors which contributed to
the Flood:
• Indiscriminate development in hill towns and along rivers
• The unbridled growth of tourism accompanied with
proliferation of roads, hotels, shops and multi-storeyed
housing in ecologically fragile areas.
• Construction of large dams
• Reckless mining of sand
• Large-scale deforestation
Lack of an early warning system, effective evacuation
plans and a responsive disaster management system
further worsened the situation.
If you are under a flood warning:
• Find safe shelter right away.
• Do not walk, swim or drive through flood waters. Turn
Around, Don’t Drown!
• Remember, just six inches of moving water can knock you
down, and one foot of moving water can sweep your
vehicle away.
• Stay off bridges over fast-moving water.

• Depending on the type of flooding:

• Evacuate if told to do so.
• Move to higher ground or a higher floor.
• Stay where you are.
Structural and Non-Structural Measures for Flood Protection in
India
Structural measures

The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood

protection:
• Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
• Dams and reservoirs
• Natural detention basins
• Channel improvement
• Drainage improvement
• Diversion of flood waters.

Non-structural measures
Non-structural measures include:
• Flood forecasting and warning
• Floodplain zoning
• Flood fighting
• Flood proofing
• Flood insurance.
 EFFECTS OF FLOOD
Soil erosion and degradation of land and water leads to damage
of the production base, thus adversely affecting the sustainable
agriculture as well as development.

• Floods also leads to the damage of irrigation channels. The

irrigation channels in the flood prone areas either damaged or
covered with soil.

• Large scale damages are seen on the live-stock and population.

Heavy floods wash away and kill the live-stocks such as domestic
and wild animals. People are also affected by floods in various
ways such as washed way or attacked by diseases after flood.

• Every year, Brahmaputra floods the national park, thus forcing

animals to encroach into human settlements.
 DROUGHT
A drought is an event of prolonged shortages in the water
supply, whether atmospheric (below-average precipitation),
surface water or ground water.
It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and
agriculture of the affected region and harm to the local
economy.

It is a natural disaster, which is hazardous to human beings

because it results in water shortage, damages to crops, and
an increased death rate of livestock and wild animals. It also
results in shortage of electricity.

In drought-prone areas certain measures such as

construction of reservoirs, rain-harvest system and stopping
over-grazing could be taken. It causes increase in food prices
and unemployment.
 TYPES OF DROUGHT
1. Meteorological Drought: is based on the degree of dryness or
rainfall deficit and the length of the dry period.

2. Hydrological Drought: is based on the impact of rainfall deficits

on the water supply such as stream flow, reservoir and lake levels,
and ground water table decline.

3. Agricultural Drought: refers to the impacts on agriculture by

factors such as rainfall deficits, soil water deficits, reduced ground
water, or reservoir levels needed for irrigation.

4. Socio-Economic Drought: considers the impact of drought

conditions (meteorological, agricultural, or hydrological drought) on
supply and demand of some economic goods such as fruits,
vegetables, grains and meat. Socioeconomic drought occurs when
the demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a
weather-related deficit in water supply.
Impacts of Drought:
Environmental:
• Moisture Stress
• Drinking Water Shortage
• Damage to Natural Vegetation and Various Ecosystems
• Increased Air And Water Pollution

Socio-economic:
• Malnutrition
• Poor Hygiene
• Ill Health
• Migration
• Increased Stress and Morbidity
• Social Strife
 SOIL EROSION
Soil Erosion is one form of soil degradation. It occurs in
almost all types of lands.

Flowing water, rainwater, and the wind are the prime

agents which cause a significant amount of soil loss each
year.

Too much of soil erosion causes serious loss of topsoil and

also reduces crop production potential, lower surface
water quality, and damaged drainage networks.
 SOIL EROSION
Types of Soil Erosion
• Rain Drop or Splash Erosion
o The erosion due to the impact of falling raindrops on the soil surface leading to the
destruction of the crumb structure is known as raindrop or splash erosion.

• Sheet Erosion
o It is the uniform removal of soil in thin layers from the land surface caused by the wind.
Land areas with loose, shallow topsoil overlying compact soil are most prone to sheet
erosion.

• Rill Erosion
o Rill erosion is a form of water erosion in which the erosion takes place through numerous
narrow and more or not so straight channels called streamlets or head cuts. Rill is the
most common form of erosion, which you can also observe during heavy rain.

• Gully Erosion
o Gully erosion occurs due to the runoff of surface water, causing the removal of soil with
drainage lines. Gullies when started once, will move by headward erosion or even by
slumping of side walls unless and un-till proper steps will be taken in order to stabilize
the disturbance.

• Stream Bank Erosion

o Bank erosion is nothing but washing up away from banks of a stream or a river. It is
different from the erosion of the bed of a watercourse, that is referred to as scouring.
This type of erosion is also termed as Stream Bank Erosion.
 SOIL EROSION
Causes of Soil Erosion
• Due to Soil Texture
• If the texture is loose that is the soil contains more of small grains and of open
structure erodes faster.

• Slope
• Soil present in a steeper slope more than the soil present at a plane level of
the ground.

• Intensity or Amount of Rainfall

• More intense rain, more erosion. This can be a bit slow if there are more trees
present in the land as the roots of the plants hold soil in a firm manner.

• Human Activities
• Agricultural practices, deforestation, roads and urbanization and global
warming are a few major causes of soil erosion.

• Deforestation
• Mismanaged utilization of soil resources like the removal of forest cover
causes soil erosion heavily. Due to increasing land demand, the human is more
into deforesting lands. Tree roots act as a binder of the top layer of the soil.
 SOIL EROSION
Effects of Soil Erosion
• On Agriculture
• Loss of Soil
• Soil Acidification
• Losses in planting material
• water pollution

• On Environment
• Frequent flooding events
• clogged waterways
• loss of biodiversity
 SOIL EROSION
Prevention of Soil Erosion
• Plant grass and shrubs
• Add mulch or rocks
• Use mulch matting to hold vegetation on slopes
• Putdown fiber logs
• Build retaining walls
• Improve drainage
 BIOLOGICAL DISASTER
• Biological disasters are natural scenarios involving disease, disability or
death on a large scale among humans, animals and plants due to micro-
organisms like bacteria, or virus or toxins

• Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a

population, community, or region at the same time, examples being Cholera,
Plague;
• Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a
continent, or even worldwide of existing, emerging or reemerging diseases and
pestilences, example being Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu).

• The 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, killing an estimated 50 million people

worldwide
• The 1957–58 Asian flu pandemic, which killed an estimated 1 million people
• The 1968–69 Hong Kong water flu pandemic
• The 2002-3 SARS pandemic
• The AIDS pandemic, beginning in 1959
• The H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu) Pandemic 2009–2010
• COVID 19
 BIOLOGICAL HAZARD
BIO HAZARD: These refer to biological substances or organic
matters produced by parasites, viruses, bacteria, fungi and
protein that pose a threat to health of living organisms,
primarily that of humans.
• This can include :
- Medical waste
- Samples of a micro organism
- Virus or toxin (from a biological source)
- Substances harmful to other animals

Effects of Biohazards: Impact of Biohazard

- Infection -Loss of life
- Allergy -Disability
- Poisoning -Quarantine

PREVENTION OF BIOHAZARD
 MANMADE HAZARDS
Technological Disaster
• Disasters caused by technology involve the failure or
breakdown of systems, equipment and engineering
standards that harms people and the environment.
• The term itself includes a wide range of modern issues and
consequences of technology mismanagement and
engineering mistakes.
• Technology disasters include structural collapses, such as

bridges,
mines and buildings,
but also industrial accidents & chemical accidents
nuclear explosions.
• The effects of pollution, like smog and acid rain, are long-
term manmade disasters.
 MANMADE HAZARDS
Ways in which Chemical and Industrial emergencies
may arise:
• Explosion in a plant
• Accidents in storage facilities of chemicals
• Accidents during transportation of chemicals, misuse of
chemicals
• Improper waste management
• Accident in treatment plants
• Technological system failures
• Failures of plant safety design
• Arson and sabotage
• Human Error
 CHEMICAL DISASTER
Chemical, being at the core of modern industrial systems, has attained a very
serious concern for disaster management within government, private sector
and community at large.
Chemical disasters may be traumatic in their impacts on human beings and
have resulted in the casualties and also damages nature and property.
The elements which are at highest risks due to chemical disaster primarily
include the industrial plant, its employees & workers, hazardous chemicals
vehicles, the residents of nearby settlements, adjacent buildings, occupants
and surrounding community.
Chemical disasters may arise in number of ways, such as:-
1. Process and safety systems failures
o Human errors
o Technical errors
o Management errors
2. Induced effect of natural calamities
1. Accidents during the transportation
2. Hazardous waste processing/ disposal
3. Terrorist attack/ unrest leading to sabotage
 CHEMICAL HAZARD
Status of Chemical Disaster Risk in India
India has witnessed the world’s worst chemical (industrial) disaster “Bhopal Gas
Tragedy” in the year 1984. The Bhopal Gas tragedy was most devastating chemical
accident in history, where over 2500 people died due to accidental release of toxic gas
Methyl Iso Cyanate (MIC).

Such accidents are significant in terms of injuries, pain, suffering, loss of lives,
damage to property and environment. India continued to witness a series of chemical
accidents even after Bhopal had demonstrated the vulnerability of the country.
Only in last decade, 130 significant chemical accidents reported in India, which
resulted into 259 deaths and 563 number of major injured.

There are about 1861 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) units, spread across 298
districts and 25 states & 3 Union Territories, in all zones of country. Besides, there are
thousands of registered and hazardous factories (below MAH criteria) and un-
organized sectors dealing with numerous range of hazardous material posing serious
and complex levels of disaster risks.
 CHEMICAL HAZARD
Safety initiatives taken in India to address chemical risk
The comprehensive legal/ institutional framework exists in our
country.
A number of regulations covering the safety in transportation,
liability, insurance and compensations have been enacted.

Following are the relevant provisions on chemical disaster

management, prevailing in country:-
-Explosives Act 1884 - Petroleum Act 1934
-Factories Act 1948 - Insecticides Act 1968
-Environment Protection Act 1986 - Motor Vehicles Act 1988
-Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 - Disaster Management Act
2005
 CHEMICAL HAZARD
Common Hazardous Chemicals
• Guiding Instructions of most commonly used hazardous
chemicals
• Acetone
• Acetylene Gas
• Ammonia Gas
• Argon Gas
• Benzene
• Chlorine Gas
• Hydrochloric Acid
• Hydrogen
• LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
• Methanol (Methyl Alcohol)
 CHEMICAL HAZARD
PREVENTION & RESPONSE
Role of Industry Role of Government
 a) Identification of hazardous
a) Setting up of accident investigation
activities:
board and chemical accident database
 b) Maintenance of plant facility and
b) Awareness Campaigns
equipment
c) Research and development
• Proper maintenance of all the
equipment and machinery at regular d) Offsite Emergency Planning
intervals e) Transportation of Hazardous
• Regular site safety and health chemicals
inspection
 c) Installation of vapour / gas
detection systems.
 d) Compliance with existing rules and
regulations
 e) Development of human resource
management
 f) Emergency preparedness
 NUCLEAR HAZARDS
The growth in the application of nuclear science and
technology in the fields of power generation, medicine,
industry, agriculture, research and defence has led to an
increase in the risk of occurrence of Nuclear and Radiological
emergencies.

• India has traditionally been vulnerable to natural disasters on

account of its unique geo climatic conditions and it has, of late,
like all other countries in the world, become equally vulnerable
to various man-made disasters.

• Any radiation incident resulting in or having a potential to

result in exposure and/or contamination of the workers or the
public in excess of the respective permissible limits can lead to
a nuclear/radiological emergency.
 NUCLEAR HAZARDS
Nuclear Accident
• A nuclear accident is still possible even though the construction and operation of
nuclear power plants are closely monitored and regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC).

• Nuclear power plants use the heat generated from nuclear fission in a contained
environment to convert water to steam, which powers generators to produce
electricity. It is the by-product of this activity that creates the biggest hazard.
 NUCLEAR HAZARDS
List of few Nuclear and Radiological Accidents

• Chernobyl, Ukraine 1986 Nuclear disaster

• Kyshtym, Russia 1957 Nuclear disaster

• 2019 Radiation release during explosion and fire at Russian nuclear missile
test site

• 2017 Airborne radioactivity increase in Europe in autumn 2017

• 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

• 2001 Instituto Oncologico Nacional radiotherapy accident

• 1999 and 1997 Tokaimura nuclear accidents

• 1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident