Discrete Structures

Lecture # 2

PMAS – Arid Agriculture University,

Rawalpindi
The Foundations: Logic

• Mathematical Logic is a tool for working with

compound statements

• Logic is the study of correct reasoning

• Use of logic

• In mathematics: to prove theorems

• In computer science: to prove that programs do

what they are supposed to do
Propositional Logic

• Propositional logic: It deals with propositions.

• The area of logic that deals with propositions

• Predicate logic: It deals with predicates.

• The area of logic that deals with predicates
Definition of a Proposition
Definition: A proposition (usually denoted by p, q, r, …) is
a declarative statement that is either True (T) or False (F),
but not both or somewhere “in between!”.

Propositional Variables
• Variables that represent propositions
• Conventional letters are : p, q, r, s, . . .
• Truth values: T(true), F(false)

Note: Commands and questions are not propositions.

Examples of Propositions

The following are all propositions:

• “It is raining” (In a given situation)
• “Amman is the capital of Jordan”
• “1 + 2 = 3” or "2+2 = 3”
• Two plus two is equal to four.
• Toronto is the capital of Canada.
• etc.
Examples of Propositions

But, the following are NOT propositions:

• “Who’s there?” (Question)

• “La la la la la.” (Meaningless)
• “Just do it!” (Command)
• “1 + 2” (Expression with a non-true/false value)
• “1 + 2 = x” (Expression with unknown value of x)
Operators / Connectives

An operator or connective combines one or more

operand expressions into a larger expression. (e.g., “+”
in numeric expression.)

• Unary operators take 1 operand (e.g. −3);

• Binary operators take 2 operands (e.g. 3  4).

• Propositional or Boolean operators operate on

propositions (or their truth values) instead of on numbers.
 Compound Statement (Propositions)
Complicated logical statements build out of simple ones
Three Symbols
• ~ (not) --- ~ p (not p)
• Λ (and) --- pΛq (p and q)
• V (or) --- pVq (p or q)
~ p (Negation), pΛq (Conjunction), pVq (Disjunctions)
English words to logic
• “p but q” means “p and q”
• “neither p nor q” means “~ p and ~ q”
Some Popular Boolean Operators

Formal Name Nickname Arity Symbol

Negation operator NOT Unary ¬

Conjunction operator AND Binary 
Disjunction operator OR Binary 
Exclusive-OR operator XOR Binary 
Implication operator IMPLIES Binary 
Biconditional operator IFF Binary ↔
The Negation Operator

Definition: Let p be a proposition then ¬p is the

negation of p (Not p , it is not the case that p).
e.g. If p = “London is a city”
Truth Table: Method to show the relationship of propositions
then ¬p = “London is not a city” or “ it is not the
case that London is a city” p p
The truth table for NOT: F T
T F
T :≡ True; F :≡ False Operand Result
“:≡” means “is defined as”. column column
 Examples

1. Let p = “Ahmad’s PC runs Linux”

•~p?
2. Let H = “It is hot”
S= “It is Sunny”
(i). “It is not hot but it is Sunny”
“_______________”
(ii). “It is neither hot nor Sunny”
“_______________”
The Conjunction Operator
Definition: Let p and q be propositions, the proposition “p AND q”
denoted by (p  q) is called the conjunction of p and q.

The conjunction of the statements P and Q is the statement

“P and Q” and its denoted by P ∧ Q. The statement P ∧ Q is
true only when both P and Q are true.

e.g. If p = “I will have salad for lunch” and

q = “I will have steak for dinner”, then
p  q = “I will have salad for lunch and
I will have steak for dinner”

Remember: “” points up like an “A”, and it means “AND”

Conjunction Truth Table

• Note that a conjunction p1  p2  …  pn of n

propositions will have 2n rows in its truth table.

“And”, “But”, “In addition to”, “Moreover”. Ex: The

sun is shining but it is raining
Operand columns
p q p q
F F F
F T F
T F F
T T T
 The Disjunction Operator

Definition: Let p and q be propositions, the proposition “p

OR q” denoted by (p  q) is called the disjunction of p
and q.

The disjunction of the statements P and Q is the statement

“P or Q” and its denoted by P ∨ Q. The statement P ∨
Q is true only when at least one of P or Q is true.

e.g. p = “My car has a bad engine”

q = “My car has a bad carburetor”
p  q = “Either my car has a bad engine or my car has
a bad carburetor”
Disjunction Truth Table

• Note that p  q means that p is true, or q is true, or

both are true!

• So, this operation is also called inclusive or,

because it includes the possibility that both p and q
are true. p q p q
F F F Note the
F T T differences
from AND
T F T
T T T
Takeaway

• Rather memorizing, it is easier to remember the rules

summarized.

Operator Symbolic Summary of Truth Values

Conjunction P∧Q True only when both P and Q are true
Disjunction P∨Q False only when both P and Q are false
Negation (~ or ┐) ~P Opposite truth value of P
Compound Statements

• Let p, q, r be simple statements. We can form

other compound statements, such as

(p  q)  r

p  (q  r)

¬p  ¬q

(p  q)  (¬r  s)

and many others…
Truth Table – Example

• Lets try to build table for

1.~P ∧ Q
2.~P ∧ (Q ∨~P)
3.(P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)
4.~(~P)

P Q ~P ~P ∧ Q
T T
T F
F T
F F
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

• Lets try to build table for

1.~P ∧ Q

P Q ~P ~P ∧ Q
T F
T F
F T
F T
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

• Lets try to build table for

1.~P ∧ Q

P Q ~P ~P ∧ Q
T F F
F F F
T T T
F T F
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

• Lets try to build table for

1.~P ∧ Q

P Q ~P ~P ∧ Q
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F
Truth Table – Example – (pq)r

p q r pq (p  q)  r
F F F
F F T
F T F
F T T
T F F
T F T
T T F
T T T
Truth Table – Example – Cont.. (pq)r

p q r pq (p  q)  r
F F F F F
F F T F F
F T F T F
F T T T T
T F F T F
T F T T T
T T F T F
T T T T T
Truth Table – Example

1. ~P ∧ (Q ∨~R)
~P ∧ (Q
P Q R ~R Q ∨ ~R ~P
∨~R)
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. ~P ∧ (Q ∨~R)
~P ∧ (Q
P Q R ~R Q ∨ ~R ~P
∨~R)
T F
F T
T F
F T
T F
F T
T F
F T
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. ~P ∧ (Q ∨~R)
~P ∧ (Q
P Q R ~R Q ∨ ~R ~P
∨~R)
T F T
T T T
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
F F F
F T T
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. ~P ∧ (Q ∨~R)
~P ∧ (Q
P Q R ~R Q ∨ ~R ~P
∨~R)
T F
T F
T F
T F
F T
F T
F T
F T
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. ~P ∧ (Q ∨~R)
~P ∧ (Q
P Q R ~R Q ∨ ~R ~P
∨~R)
T F F
T F F
F F F
T F F
T T T
T T T
F T F
T T T
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. ~P ∧ (Q ∨~R)
~P ∧ (Q
P Q R ~R Q ∨ ~R ~P
∨~R)
T T T F T F F
T T F T T F F
T F T F F F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F F T F
F F F T T T T
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)

~(P ∧
P Q P∨Q P∧Q (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)
Q)
T T
T F
F T
F F
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)

~(P ∧
P Q P∨Q P∧Q (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)
Q)
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)

~(P ∧
P Q P∨Q P∧Q (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)
Q)
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)

~(P ∧
P Q P∨Q P∧Q (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)
Q)
T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)

~(P ∧
P Q P∨Q P∧Q (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)
Q)
T T T F F
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F F T F
Truth Table – Example – Cont..

1. (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)

~(P ∧
P Q P∨Q P∧Q (P ∨ Q) ∧ ~(P ∧ Q)
Q)
T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F
A Simple Exercise

Let p = “It rained last night”,

q = “The sprinklers came on last night” ,
r = “The grass was wet this morning”.

Translate each of the following into English:

¬p =
r  ¬p =
¬rpq =
A Simple Exercise

Let p = “It rained last night”,

q = “The sprinklers came on last night” ,
r = “The grass was wet this morning”.
Translate each of the following into English:

¬p = “It didn’t rain last night”

r  ¬p = “The grass was wet this morning, and it didn’t rain last
night”

¬ r  p  q = “Either the grass wasn’t wet this morning, or it rained

last night, or the sprinklers came on last night”