Plan for Tonight

• Class notes
• Review
• Quiz
• Astronews
• Gas giants
• Math Practice
• Reminder – Midterm #2 – Mar 20 – two weeks
tonight
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 Mercury - Internal structure

• Mercury’s Internal Structure. The interior of Mercury is dominated by a metallic core about
the same size as our Moon.
• Mercury’s magnetic field is weak – about 1% that of earths
 Rotation rates

• Doppler Radar Measures Rotation. When a radar beam is reflected from a rotating planet,
the motion of one side of the planet’s disk toward us and the other side away from us
causes Doppler shifts in the reflected signal. The effect is to cause both a redshift and a
blueshift, widening the spread of frequencies in the radio beam.

• NOT NEEDED FOR MARS WHICH HAS A TRANSPARENT ATMOSPHERE

 Surface features

• Mercury’s Topography. The topography of Mercury’s northern hemisphere is mapped in great detail from
MESSENGER data. The lowest regions are shown in purple and blue, and the highest regions are shown in
red. The difference in elevation between the lowest and highest regions shown here is roughly 10
kilometers. The permanently shadowed low-lying craters near the north pole contain radar-bright water ice.
(credit: modification of work by NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie
Institution of Washington)
 Evidence of geological activity

• Discovery Scarp on Mercury. This long cliff, nearly 1 kilometer high and more than 100
kilometers long, cuts across several craters. Astronomers conclude that the compression
that made “wrinkles” like this in the plank’s surface must have taken place after the
craters were formed. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL/Northwestern University)
 venus

• Venus as Photographed by the Pioneer Venus Orbiter. This ultraviolet image shows an upper-atmosphere cloud structure that
would be invisible at visible wavelengths. Note that there is not even a glimpse of the planet’s surface. (credit: modification of work
by NASA)

• OUR NEAREST NEIGHBOUR AND THE BRIGHTEST PLANET IN THE SKY – “morning/evening” star
• MOST SIMILAR TO EARTH IN TERMS OF SIZE AND COMPOSITION
 Through the clouds

• Radar Map of Venus. This composite image has a resolution of about 3 kilometers. Colors
have been added to indicate elevation, with blue meaning low and brown and white high.
The large continent Aphrodite stretches around the equator, where the bright (therefore
rough) surface has been deformed by tectonic forces in the crust of Venus. (credit:
modification of work by NASA/JPL/USGS)

• MUST USE RADAR TO IMAGE THROUGH THE THICK ATMOSPHERE

 Geological activity

• Pancake-Shaped Volcanoes on Venus. These remarkable circular domes, each about 25 kilometers across and
about 2 kilometers tall, are the result of eruptions of highly viscous (sludgy) lava that spreads out evenly in all
directions. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL)

• CLEAR EVIDENCE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

 More activity evidence

• Ridges and Cracks. This region of the Lakshmi Plains on Venus has been fractured by tectonic forces to
produce a cross-hatched grid of cracks and ridges. Be sure to notice the fainter linear features that run
perpendicular to the brighter ones. As this is a radar image, the brightness of the ridges indicates their
relative height. This image shows a region about 80 kilometers wide and 37 kilometers high. Lakshmi is a
Hindu goddess of prosperity. (credit: modification of work by Magellan Team, JPL, NASA)
 Runaway greenhouse effect

• Venus’ Atmosphere. The layers of the massive atmosphere of Venus shown here are based
on data from the Pioneer and Venera entry probes. Height is measured along the left axis,
the bottom scale shows temperature, and the red line allows you to read off the
temperature at each height. Notice how steeply the temperature rises below the clouds,
thanks to the planet’s huge greenhouse effect.
• Process by which Venus became so much hotter than earth
 images

• Mars as Seen from Earth’s Surface. These are among the best Earth-based photos of Mars,
taken in 1988 when the planet was exceptionally close to Earth. The polar caps and dark
surface markings are evident, but not topographic features. (credit: modification of work by
Steve Larson, Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona)
 Older perspective

• Lowell’s Mars Globe. One of the remarkable globes of Mars prepared by Percival Lowell, showing a network of
dozens of canals, oases, and triangular water reservoirs that he claimed were visible on the red planet.
• Percival Lowell (1855–1916)

• PUBLICIZED THE IDEA OF CANALS ON MARS AND IMPRESSED IT ON THE PUBLIC MIND
 Modern images

• Mars Photographed by the Hubble Space Telescope. This is one of the best photos of Mars
taken from our planet, obtained in June 2001 when Mars was only 68 million kilometers away.
The resolution is about 20 kilometers—much better than can be obtained with ground-based
telescopes but still insufficient to reveal the underlying geology of Mars. (credit: modification
of work by NASA and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA))
 On the ground

• Surface View from Mars Pathfinder. The scene from the Pathfinder lander shows a windswept plain, sculpted
long ago when water flowed out of the martian highlands and into the depression where the spacecraft landed.
The Sojourner rover, the first wheeled vehicle on Mars, is about the size of a microwave oven. Its flat top
contains solar cells that provided electricity to run the vehicle. You can see the ramp from the lander and the
path the rover took to the larger rock that the mission team nicknamed “Yogi.” (credit: NASA/JPL)
 impacts

• Victoria Crater.
(a) This crater in Meridiani Planum is 800 meters wide, making it slightly smaller than Meteor crater on Earth. Note the dune field in the
interior.
(b) This image shows the view from the Opportunity rover as it scouted the rim of Victoria crater looking for a safe route down into the
interior. (credit a: modification of work by NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona/Cornell/Phio State University; credit b:
modification of work by NASA/JPL/Cornell)
 Surface structure

• Mars Map from Laser Ranging. These globes are highly precise topographic maps, reconstructed from
millions of individual elevation measurements made with the Mars Global Surveyor. Color is used to
indicate elevation. The hemisphere on the left includes the Tharsis bulge and Olympus Mons, the
highest mountain on Mars; the hemisphere on the right includes the Hellas basin, which has the
lowest elevation on Mars. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL)
 “the big mon”

• Olympus Mons. THE LARGEST VOLCANO ON MARS, AND PROBABLY THE LARGEST IN THE
SOLAR SYSTEM, is Olympus Mons, illustrated in this computer-generated rendering based on
data from the Mars Global Surveyor’s laser altimeter. Placed on Earth, the base of Olympus
Mons would completely cover the state of Missouri; the caldera, the circular opening at the
top, is 65 kilometers across, about the size of Los Angeles. (credit: NASA/Corbis)
 Active surface

• Martian Landslides. This Viking orbiter image shows Ophir Chasma, one of the connected
valleys of the Valles Marineris canyon system. Look carefully and you can see enormous
landslides whose debris is piled up underneath the cliff wall, which tower up to 10
kilometers above the canyon floor. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL/USGS)
 atmosphere

• Very thin atmosphere – P ~0.007 bar (Earth is 1 bar)

• Carbon dioxide – 95%
• Nitrogen – 3%
• Argon – 2%
• Weak winds because “air” is so thin
• Liquid water is not stable in this atmosphere
• Surface temperature about -60 C

• Initial Martian atmosphere escaped into space, but some was frozen out and
remains
 winds

• Dust Devil Tracks and Sand Dunes.

(a) This high-resolution photo from the Mars Global Surveyor shows the dark tracks of several dust devils that have stripped away a thin coating of light-
colored dust. This view is of an area about 3 kilometers across. Dust devils are one of the most important ways that dust gets redistributed by the
martian winds. They may also help keep the solar panels of our rovers free of dust.
(b) These windblown sand dunes on Mars overlay a lighter sandy surface. Each dune in this high-resolution view is about 1 kilometer across. (credit a:
modification of work by NASA/JPL/University of Arizona; credit b: modification of work by NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona)
 More wind evidence

• Wind Erosion on Mars. These long straight ridges, called yardangs, are aligned with the
dominant wind direction. This is a high-resolution image from the Mars Reconnaissance
Orbiter and is about 1 kilometer wide. (credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona)
 Polar cap

• Martian North Polar Cap.

(a) Caps are partially frozen carbon dioxide – dry ice
 Old rivers

• Runoff and Outflow Channels.

(a) These runoff channels in the old martian highlands are interpreted as the valleys of ancient rivers fed by either rain or underground
springs. The width of this image is about 200 kilometers.
(b) This intriguing channel, called Nanedi Valles, resembles Earth riverbeds in some (but not all) ways. The tight curves and terraces seen
in the channel certainly suggest the sustained flow of a fluid like water. The channel is about 2.5 kilometers across. (credit a:
modification of work by Jim Secosky/NASA; credit b: modification of work by Jim Secosky/NASA)
 Run off

• Gullies on the Wall of Garni Crater. This high-resolution image is from the Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter. The dark streaks, which are each several hundred meters long,
change in a seasonal pattern that suggests they are caused by the temporary flow of
surface water. (credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona)
 Old lake bed

• Gale Crater.
(a) This scene, photographed by the Curiosity rover, shows an ancient lakebed of cracked mudstones.
(b) Geologists working with the Curiosity rover interpret this image of cross-bedded sandstone in Gale crater as evidence of liquid water
passing over a loose bed of sediment at the time this rock formed. (credit a: modification of work by NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS; credit
b: modification of work by NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS)
We also did some math problems

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Quiz on last week

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 “Astronomy news”
• Webb Space telescope has imaged some gas giants around a white
dwarf
• What is a white dwarf?
• Stars have very long lives – billions of years for our sun for example –
but they do not live forever
• Small stars – like our Sun – become red giants as they exhaust the
hydrogen in their core
• Eventually, all fusion stops and they collapse into dense, not objects
called white dwarfs
• Radiate their energy away and ultimately end up as black dwarfs –
cold dense object
• This is what will happen to our Sun
• This may be a glimpse into the future of our solar system
 The Sun
• As the Sun becomes a red giant, it will grow to
about 200 time its present size.
– Now has a radius of about 700 000 km
– Will grow to about 140 000 000 km
– Recall radius of earth’s orbit is is about 150 000 000 km
• Sun will certainly engulf Mercury and Venus
• Possibly Earth and Mars as well…
• Will the outer planets survive this?
 Metals in spectra
• If a white dwarf shows metals in its spectrum,
suggests it has gobbled up some planets…

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Blob in upper left corner is a galaxy

“JWST Directly Images Giant Planet Candidates Around Two Metal-Polluted White
Dwarf Stars,” Susan E. Mullally et al 2024 ApJL 962 L32. doi:10.3847/2041- 31
8213/ad2348
 Maybe gas giants that survived?
“The observations show a reddish object near two
of the white dwarfs. If these objects are indeed
planets and the same ages as their host white
dwarfs (5.3 and 1.6 billion years old), they likely
have masses of 1–7 and 1–2 Jupiter masses,
respectively. They’re currently orbiting at
estimated distances of 11.47 and 34.62
astronomical units (au), which correspond to
orbital distances of 5.3 au and 9.7 au when their
host stars were on the main sequence — similar
to the present-day orbital distances of Jupiter and
Saturn.”
https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/jwst-photographs-possible-giant-planets-around-white-dwarfs/
 Other explanations?
• They could be background objects that simple
appear to be in orbits
• Needt o follow up to ensure that they are in
orbit
• Researchers estimate chance of a false
positive at 1 in 3000
 The Goals of This Chapter
• In this chapter, we will find answers to four
important questions:
– What are the properties of the Jovian planets?
– What is the evidence that some moons in the outer
solar system have been geologically active?
– How are planetary rings formed and maintained?
– What do Pluto and the other Kuiper belt objects tell
us about the formation of the solar system?

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 Jovian Planets
• Jovian worlds have hydrogen-rich atmospheres
filled with clouds.
• Near their centres, the Jovian planets have cores
of dense material (rock and metal). They have no
solid surface.
• Jovian planets have numerous moons, some of
which are geologically active.
• All Jovian planets have rings.

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• Jupiter. The Cassini spacecraft imaged Jupiter on its way to Saturn in 2012. The giant storm
system called the Great Red Spot is visible to the lower right. The dark spot to the lower left
is the shadow of Jupiter’s moon Europa. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL)
• Galileo Probe Falling into Jupiter. Galileo Probe and Juno Image of Jupiter’s South Pole.
(a) This artist’s depiction shows the Galileo probe descending into the clouds via
parachute just after the protective heat shield separated. The probe made its
measurements of Jupiter’s atmosphere on December 7, 1995. (b) This Juno image, taken
in 2017 from about 100,000 kilometers above the cloudtops, shows the south polar region
of Jupiter with its dramatic complex of storms and clouds. The enhanced-color image was
processed for NASA/JPL by citizen scientist John Landino. (credit a: modification of work by
NASA/Ames Research Center; credit b: modification of work by
NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/MSSS/John Landino)
 Jupiter’s Interior
• Due to its rapid rotation, Jupiter is
oblate.
• Most of Jupiter’s interior is liquid
metallic hydrogen, which in
conjunction with rapid rotation,
drives its strong magnetic field.
• Jupiter emits about twice as much
energy as it absorbs from the Sun
– this is due to heat left over from
the formation of the planet. . 3 ti m es
o nly 1
u p ite r i s
n w ater.
J e r tha
d e n s
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 Jupiter’s Complex Atmosphere
Four important ideas (1–2):
1. Jupiter’s extensive magnetosphere is responsible
for aurorae around the magnetic poles.
Interactions between Jupiter’s magnetic field
and the solar wind generate electric currents
that flow around the planet’s magnetic poles.
2. Jupiter’s rings, discovered in 1979 by the
Voyager I space probe, are relatively close to
the planet.
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 Evidence for the magnetosphere

• Jupiter in Radio Waves. This false-color image of Jupiter was made with the Very Large Array (of radio
telescopes) in New Mexico. We see part of the magnetosphere, brightest in the middle because the largest
number of charged particles are in the equatorial zone of Jupiter. The planet itself is slightly smaller than
the green oval in the center. Different colors are used to indicate different intensities of synchrotron
radiation. (credit: modification of work by I. de Pater (UC Berkeley) NRAO, AUI, NSF)
 Jupiter’s Complex Atmosphere
Four important ideas (3–4):
3. The pattern of coloured cloud bands circling
the planet, like stripes on a child’s ball, is called
belt-zone circulation (related to the high- and
low-pressure areas in Earth’s atmosphere).
4. The positions of the cloud layers are at certain
temperatures within the atmosphere where
ammonia (NH3), ammonium hydrosulphide
(NH4SH), and water (H2O) can condense.
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 Windy Places!

• Winds on the Giant Planets. This image compares the winds of the giant planets, illustrating that wind
speed (shown on the horizontal axis) and wind direction vary with latitude (shown on the vertical axis).
Winds are measured relative to a planet’s internal rotation speed. A positive velocity means that the winds
are blowing in the same direction as, but faster than, the planet’s internal rotation. A negative velocity
means that the winds are blowing more slowly than the planet’s internal rotation. Note that Saturn’s winds
move faster than those of the other planets.

• 100 ms/ = 360 km/h!

 Colours?

• Jupiter’s Colorful Clouds. The vibrant colors of the clouds on Jupiter present a puzzle to
astronomers: given the cool temperatures and the composition of nearly 90% hydrogen, the
atmosphere should be colorless. One hypothesis suggests that perhaps colorful hydrogen
compounds rise from warm areas. The actual colors are a bit more muted(credit: modification
of work by Voyager Project, JPL, and NASA)
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 Jupiter’s Rings
• Jupiter’s rings are very dark and reddish,
indicating that they consist of rocky material.
• The forward scattering of visible light indicates
that the rings are mostly made of extremely small
grains.
• The rings orbit inside the Roche limit, where tidal
forces are strong.
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If a m LIMIT, it w
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 Jupiter’s Ring
Jupiter has been found to have a small,
thin ring
Jupiter’s Family of Moons
m oon s
s 4 large
p ite r ha t least
Ju and a r moons.
s m alle
6 3

Remember we saw these moons with the telescope

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 Ganymede and Callisto
• Both moons have low densities  ½ rock, ½ ice
• Differentiated, metallic cores, old surface.
• Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar
system.

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 Europa
Mostly rock, with a liquid ocean 200 km underneath
the icy crust. The surface is young and active.

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 Io
• Mostly rock and metal.
• The most volcanically active body in the solar
system.
• Io’s volcanism appears to be driven by tidal
heating.
• Jupiter’s gravitational field flexes Io with tides
 the friction heats the interior  heat flowing
outward causes the volcanism.

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Io’s volcanoes

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 A History of Jupiter
• Its present composition resembles the
composition of the solar nebula.
• Must have grown rapidly.
• The large family of moons may be mostly
captured asteroids.
• The four Galilean moons are large and seem to
have formed like a mini-solar system in a disk of
gas and dust around the forming planet.

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 Saturn

• Saturn over Five Years. These beautiful images of Saturn were recorded by the Hubble
Space Telescope between 1996 and 2000. Since Saturn is tilted by 27°, we see the
orientation of Saturn’s rings around its equator change as the planet moves along its orbit.
Note the horizontal bands in the atmosphere. (credit: modification of work by NASA and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA))
Acadia Observatory Saturn Image

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 Saturn
• Saturn’s density is 0.69 g/cm3 (less
dense than water), meaning that it
would float on Lake Superior.
• Rich in hydrogen and helium.
• Saturn has less liquid metallic
hydrogen than Jupiter, and
consequently, a weaker magnetic
field.
• Like Jupiter, Saturn also radiates more
energy than it receives from the Sun.

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 Atmosphere

• Atmospheric Structure - the yellow line shows how the temperature (see the scale on the
bottom) changes with altitude (see the scale at the left). The location of the main is also
shown.
• Chilly and inhospitable!
 Bands again

• Cloud Structure on Saturn. In this Cassini image, colors have been intensified, so we can
see the bands and zones and storms in the atmosphere. The dark band is the shadow of the
rings on the planet. (credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute)
 Interesting Structure at Pole

• Hexagon Pattern on Saturn’s North Pole. In this infrared nighttime image from the Cassini
mission, the path of Saturn’s hexagonal jet stream is visible as the planet’s north pole
emerges from the darkness of winter. (credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona)
 Saturn’s Spectacular Ring
System

Saturn has an
extraordinarily
large and complex
ring system, which
was visible even to
the first telescopes
 Saturn’s Spectacular Ring
System

Overview of
the ring system
 Saturn’s Spectacular Ring
System
Voyager probes showed Saturn’s rings to be
much more complex than originally thought
(Earth is shown on the same scale as the
rings)
Saturn’s Spectacular Ring
System
This backlit view shows the
fainter F, G, and E rings
 Saturn’s Spectacular Ring
System
• Other edges and divisions in rings are the
result of orbital resonances
• moons which can have commensurate periods

• “Shepherd” moon defines outer edge of A ring

through gravitational interactions
 Saturn’s Spectacular Ring
System
Ring particles range in size from fractions of a
millimeter to tens of meters
Composition: Water ice—similar to snowballs

Why rings?
• Too close to planet for moon to form—tidal
forces would tear it apart
 Saturn’s Spectacular Ring
System
Closest distance that moon could survive is
called Roche limit; jovian ring systems are
almost all inside this limit
 Saturn’s Rings
Three points about Saturn’s rings (1):
• The rings are made up of billions of ice particles,
each in its own orbit around the planet.
• The ring particles can’t be as old as Saturn.
• The rings must be replenished now and then by
impacts on Saturn’s moons or other processes.
• The same is true of the rings around the other
Jovian planets.

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 Saturn’s Rings cont’d
Three points about Saturn’s rings (2):
• The gravitational effects of small moons can
confine some rings in narrow strands or keep the
edges of rings sharp.
• Moons can also produce waves in the rings that
are visible as tightly wound ringlets.

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 Saturn’s Spectacular Ring
System
Strangest ring is outermost, F ring; it appears to
have braids and kinks
 Saturn’s Rings cont’d
Three points about Saturn’s rings (3):
• The ring particles are confined in a thin layer in
Saturn’s equatorial plane, spread among small
moons, and confined by gravitational interactions
with larger moons.
• The rings of Saturn, and the rings of the other
Jovian worlds, are created by and controlled by
the planet’s moons.
• Without the moons, there would be no rings.

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 Saturn’s Family of Moons
• As of June 8, 2023, Saturn has 146 moons in its orbit =
https://science.nasa.gov/saturn/moons/

• Most moons are

• small (soccer stadium sized),
• composed of mixtures of ice and rock,
• heavily cratered, and
• have no atmosphere.

• Many are probably captured objects.

• The largest Saturn’s moon is Titan.
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Titan

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 Titan
• Dense atmosphere is composed of mostly
nitrogen and traces of methane and argon.
• Methane exists as liquid, gas, and solid.
• Methane is replenished through methane
volcanoes.
• There are methane lakes (e.g., Ontario Lacus).
rg e r than
liq uid is a bit la ury.
a n , Tita n e rc
On Tit lls as rain. anet M
a n e fa th e p l
m et h

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Enceladus

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 Enceladus
• Saturn’s sixth-largest moon, geologically active
due to tidal heating.
• Geyser-like jets venting from cryovolcanoes
around the south pole.
• The material ejected consists of water vapour
and other volatiles, including sodium chloride
crystals  some of this material falls back on the
surface and some of it feeds Saturn’s E-ring.

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 Uranus
• Not likely to contain any liquid metallic hydrogen.
• The atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium,
but traces of methane absorb red light and make
the atmosphere look blue.
• Uranus is radiating about the same amount of
energy that it receives from the Sun.
• The magnetic field is highly inclined to Uranus’s
axis of rotation.

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 The Uranian Moons
• The five major moons
have old, dark, cratered
surfaces.
• The surface of Miranda,
the innermost moon, is
marked by grooves
called ovoids.

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 The Uranian Rings
• Dark and faint.
• The first evidence that
Uranus had rings came
from occultations: the
passage of the planet
in front of a star.

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 Neptune
• Similar in composition to Uranus.
• Atmospheric circulation on Neptune is much
more dramatic than on Uranus (the Great
Dark Spot).
• Neptune has a highly inclined magnetic field that
must be linked to circulation in the interior.

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 Neptune’s Moons
• Two largest moons: Nereid and Triton.
• Nereid follows a large, elliptical orbit.
• Triton orbits Neptune backward.
• Triton had an active past – few craters, long faults,
and large basins.

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91
Neptune’s Rings

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N ep d very
in t a n
are fa d etect
ha r d to
o m E a rth.
fr

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 What Defines a Planet?
Criteria for planet status developed by the
International Astronomical Union (IAU):
1) is in orbit around the Sun,
2) has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round
shape), and
3) Has “cleared the neighbourhood” around its orbit.

Eris and Pluto, the largest objects found so far in the Kuiper
belt, and Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt, do not
meet that standard.

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 Pluto
• Small, icy world, with highly
inclined orbit.
• It has a thin atmosphere
composed of nitrogen and
carbon monoxide, with small
amounts of methane.

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Pluto’s Moons
• Pluto has five moons.

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 Pluto and the Plutinos
• Pluto and more than 100 other objects are in a
3:2 resonance with Neptune.
• Kuiper belt objects, named plutinos, formed in
the outer solar nebula.
• These small worlds hold clues to the formation of
the solar system.

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 Ceres
• Located in the asteroid belt.
• About 1000 km in diameter, low density.
• NASA’s Dawn spacecraft began orbiting Ceres
to examine its shape and elemental composition
in 2015.

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 Other Dwarf Planets
• The remaining four dwarf planets recognized by
the IAU are Eris, Haumea, and Makemake.
• Eris – discovered in 2005, highly eccentric orbit
• Haumea – ellipsoidal shape
• Makemake – spherical
• Ceres – inner solar system object

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Math Practice

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