The digestive system

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 Digestion:–
 food is converted into substances that can be absorbed and
assimilated by the body
Basic Divisions of the Digestive System
Alimentary Canal
The tube through which food/waste actually passes
The Tubular digestive tract -includes
Oral cavity---Pharynx----Esophagus----Stomach----Small
intestine--- Large Intestine---Rectum----Anus
Accessory Organs (glands)
 Are connected to and involved with the alimentary canal
– but no food/waste passes through them
 Teeth, Tongue, Salivary glands, Liver, Gallbladder,
and Pancreas
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 Functions of the Digestive System
Ingestion:
 occurs when materials enter digestive tract via the mouth

Mechanical processing:
 crushing and shearing
 makes materials easier to propel along digestive tract

Digestion:
 is the chemical breakdown of food
• into small organic fragments
• for absorption by digestive epithelium
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 Secretion:
 is the release of water, acids, enzymes, buffers,
and salts by
o Epithelium of digestive tract
o Glandular organs

Absorption:
 movement of organic substrates, electrolytes,
vitamins, and water across digestive epithelium
into interstitial fluid of digestive tract

Excretion:
 removal of waste products from body fluids
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 Serous membrane of the GIT
 Serous membrane is an epithelial membrane that lines the

abdominal cavity
 A serous membrane has:

parietal portion: lining the body wall

 visceral portion: covering the internal organs

 Serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is called peritoneum

 Serous membranes secrete a lubricating serous fluid that

moistens the associated organs

 The peritoneum is the largest serous membrane of the body
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 The parietal peritoneum lines the wall of the abdominal cavity
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 Layers of the GIT
 The GIT from the esophagus to the anal canal is composed of

four layers, or tunics.

The four tunics from inside to out side are the

 Mucosa

 sub mucosa
 muscularis
 serosa

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 Lips
 Are folds of skeletal mm surrounding the opening of the mouth

 Contain the orbicularis oris muscle

 Are covered externally by skin and internally by a mucous membrane

 The inner surface is attached to gum by a fold of mucous membrane

called the labial frenulum

 B/n the skin and the mucous membrane is a transition zone –

vermilion

 Has sensory receptors

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 The oral cavity
 The oral cavity
 Vestibule:- Space between the cheeks (or lips) and the teeth
 Oral Cavity Proper.

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 Palate
 Forms roofs of the oral cavity and
separates the oral cavity from nasal
cavity
 Consists of hard palate anteriorly
and soft palate posteriorly
 Hard palate formed by palatine process
of maxillae and horizontal plates of
palatine bone
 Soft palate :- is muscular arch ,
posterior 1/3
 suspended from the middle lower
border of the soft palate is uvula
 Uvula :-Helps prevent food from
entering nasopharynx prematurely
during swallowing

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 The tongue
 It is mass of skeletal muscle covered with mucous membrane
 Has root, body and apex
The extrinsic muscles:-
o Hyoglossus, genioglossus, palatoglosus and styloglossus
muscles
o Move the tongue side to side and in and out
Intrinsic muscles - alter the shape and size of the tongue
o Include the longitudinalis superior, longitudinalis
inferior,transversus linguae, and verticalis linguae muscles
 The lingual frenulum
a fold of mucous membrane in the midline
Is attached to the floor of the mouth
Aids in limiting the movement of the tongue posteriorly
Ankyloglossia:- lingual frenulum is abnormally short

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Has four types

papillae
o Filiform papillae(Lacks

taste bud)
o Fungi form papillae

o Circumvallate papillae

o Foliate papillae

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 The tongue
Main functions of the tongue are:

 Mechanical processing by compression

 Manipulation to assist in chewing and to prepare the

material for swallowing

 Sensory analysis
 Secretion of mucus and an enzyme, lingual lipase.

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 The Teeth
 Located in the alveolar socket

 Two sets of teeth

 Deciduous (temporary or milk teeth): 20 in number

 Permanent (secondary teeth) teeth: 32 in number

 Gross structures of teeth: crown, root, neck

 Histological structure:

3 mineralized portions enamel, dentin, cementum

Pulp cavity
Periodontal membrane ( ligament)
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  Dentin:

a mineralized matrix similar to that of bone

does not contain cells and vessels

Made by odontoblasts

 Pulp cavity:

receives blood vessels and nerves through the root canal

 Root of each tooth sits in a bony socket (alveolus)

 A layer of cementum covers dentin of the root:

Bonelike substance, which attaches the root to the

periodontal ligament
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The neck- b/n the root
and the crown.
The crown is the
exposed portion of the
tooth.
The dentin of the crown
is covered by a layer of
enamel
Enamel contains
calcium phosphate in a
crystalline form; it is
the hardest biologically
manufactured substance
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 Types of Teeth -four types of teeth:

1. Incisors: are useful for clipping or cutting & have a

single root.

2. Cuspid or canines: are used for tearing or slashing &

have a single root.

3. Bicuspid or premolars: are used for crushing, mashing,

and grinding & have one or two roots.

4. Molars: excel at crushing and grinding & have three or

more roots.
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 Dental Succession

 During embryonic development, 2 sets of teeth form:

 Primary dentition or deciduous teeth-

 Also called primary teeth, milk teeth, or baby teeth

 20 temporary teeth of primary dentition

 5 on each side of upper and lower jaws:

 2 incisors,1 cuspid, 2 deciduous molars

 Secondary dentition or permanent dentition

 Replaces deciduous teeth, 32 permanent teeth

 8 on each side, upper and lower:

 2 incisors, 1 cuspid, 2 pre molars and 3 molars

 Formula for deciduous dentition: I 2/2, C 1/1, DM 2/2 = 10 × 2 = 20 teeth


23Formula for permanent dentition: I 2/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 = 16 × 2 = 3212/07/2024
teeth
 Salivary Glands
The salivary glands are accessory digestive glands that produce

a fluid secretion called saliva.

Numerous minor salivary glands are located in the mucous

membranes of the palatal region of the oral cavity

Three pairs of salivary glands that lie outside the oral cavity

produce most of the saliva, which is transported to the oral

cavity via salivary ducts.
The three major pairs of extrinsic salivary glands are the parotid,

submandibular, and sublingual glands.

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 Parotid Gland:-
 lie inferior to the zygomatic arch beneath the skin that covers the

lateral and posterior surface of the mandible

 Each gland has an irregular shape, extending from the mastoid process

of the temporal bone across the outer surface of the masseter muscle
 The parotid salivary glands produce a thick, serous secretion

containing large amounts of salivary amylase, an enzyme that breaks

down starches
 The secretions of each parotid gland are drained by a parotid duct

(Stensen's duct), which empties into the vestibule at the level of the
second upper molar.
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 Submandibular salivary gland::-
 are situated in the floor of the mouth along the inner surfaces
of the mandible within a depression called the mandibular
groove.
The submandibular glands secrete a mixture of buffers,
glycoproteins called mucins, and salivary amylase.
The submandibular ducts (Wharton's ducts) open into the
mouth on either side of the lingual frenulum immediately
posterior to the teeth

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 Sublingual salivary gland:
are covered by the mucous membrane of the floor of
the mouth.
These glands produce a watery, mucous secretion
that acts as a buffer and lubricant.
Numerous sublingual ducts (Rivinus' ducts) open
along either side of the lingual frenulum

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 The Esophagus
 is about 25 cm long muscular

conduit for food moving to stomach

 It begins at the level of C6 at the

lower border of the cricoid cartilage

 It passes through the oesophageal

hiatus of the diaphragm (at the

level of T10) into the abdomen and

 Ends in cardiac part of the stomach

at the level of T11 - T12.

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  Upper esophagus has only skeletal muscle

 Middle esophagus has mixture of skeletal and smooth muscles

 Lower esophagus has only smooth muscle

 Wall of esophagus has 3 layers:

 Mucosa- stratified squamous epithelium
 Submucosa- contains esophageal glands
 Muscularis - inner circular and outer longitudinal layers
 No serosa, but an adventitia of connective tissue
anchors the esophagus in position against the dorsal body

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 Stomach
The most dilated part of the alimentary

canal with J shaped structure

Is located in the left hypochondriac

and epigastric regions of the

abdomen
Covered entirely by peritoneum

Has greater and lesser curvatures,

anterior and posterior walls, cardiac

and pyloric openings, cardiac and
angular notches
 It is mixed exocrine-endocrine gland
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The stomach has four parts
 Cardia - adjacent to the oesophagogastric junction found at the level of

T10-T11

 Fundus - above the entrance of the oesophagus and usually contains 50

ml of swallowed air.
 Body - between the fundus and the pyloric part

 Pylorus - between the body and 1st part of the duodenum found at the

level of L2
 the pylorus is divided into pyloric antrum and canal.
 the pyloric orifice is surrounded by a thickened ring of gastric circular muscle,
the pyloric sphincter

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absorption
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 THE SMALL
INTESTINE

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 Small intestine
 Is the longest part of intestine suspended by mesentery about 6m (5-8m) in

length
 90% of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine

 Site of terminal food digestion, nutrient absorption & endocrine secretion

 Long enough to permit prolonged contact b/n

- food & digestive enzymes

- digested products & absorptive cells of the epithelial lining

 Has three parts:

 duodenum

 jejunum
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 ileum
 The duodenum
 25 cm in length,
 is the section closest to the stomach.
 This portion of the small intestine is a "mixing bowel"
 receives chyme from the stomach and digestive
secretions from the pancreas and liver.
 It has four part
 Except for the proximal 2.5 cm, the duodenum is in a
retroperitoneal position between vertebrae L1 and L4
 Has duodenal (Brunner’s) glands in the submucosa -
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secrete mucus
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 The Jejunum
 Is the middle segment of small intestine

 2.5 meters long

 Is the location of most:

 chemical digestion

 nutrient absorption

The Ileum
 The final segment of small intestine

 3.5 meters long

 It is also the longest, averaging 3.5 meters in length.

 The ileum ends at ileocecal valve which controls the flow of materials from

the ileum into the cecum of the large intestine

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 Factors responsible for increasing surface area for absorption
 Plicae circulares (valves of kerckring or semilunar folds) in

mucosa & submucosa (characteristic of jejunum)= 3x

 Villi in the mucosal surface = 10x

 Plentiful microvilli in the luminal surface of enterocytes= 20x

 Together, the above three are responsible for a 600-fold

increase in the intestinal surface, resulting in a total area
of 200 m2.
 Extremely large length

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 Large intestine
The horseshoe-shaped large
intestine begins at the end of
the ileum and ends at the anus
and has a length of 1.5m
It lies inferior to the stomach
and liver and almost
completely frames the small
intestine.
Consists of cecum, appendix
(attached to it), colon, rectum
and anal canal

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 The major functions include

reabsorption of water and compaction of intestinal

contents into feces,
the absorption of important vitamins liberated by bacterial
action
 the storing of fecal material prior to defecation.
 It differs from small intestine mainly because of the presence

of
teniae coli
sacculation
appendices epiploicae
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 The Cecum and Appendix
Its length is 6cm and its width is 7.5cm.
Receive material from ileum at the ileocecal valve.
The cecum collects and stores chyme and begins the process of
compaction.
The vermiform appendix (vermis, worm), is attached to the
posteromedial surface of the cecum.
o The appendix is generally
about 9 cm long, but its
size and shape are quite
variable.
o A small mesentery called
the mesoappendix
connects the appendix to
the ileum and cecum
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 The mucosa and submucosa of the appendix are

dominated by lymphoid nodules, and

the appendix's primary function is as an organ of the

lymphatic system.
Inflammation of the appendix is known as appendicitis

and surgical removal of the appendix is called

appendectomy.

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 Regions of the Colon
It contains four region

 Ascending colon:-

 Transverse colon:-

 Descending colon

 The Sigmoid Colon

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 The Rectum
o Forms the last 15 cm of the

digestive tract.
o The rectum is an expandable

organ for the temporary storage

of fecal material.
o Movement of fecal materials

into the rectum triggers the

urge to defecate.

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 The Liver
Is the largest visceral organ (1.5 kg)
Lies in right hypochondriac and
epigastric regions
Extends to left hypochondriac and
umbilical regions

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 It has
 Four anatomical lobes:-
 right, left, caudate, and quadrate
Two functional lobes
 Right and left lobe
 The left lobe includes the anatomical caudate lobe and
most of the quadrate lobe

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 Cont…
 The visceral surface of the liver is related to the

o Right side of the anterior aspect of the stomach and

pyloric areas.
o Superior part of the duodenum
o Lesser omentum enclosing the portal triad
o Gallbladder
o Right colic flexure and right transverse colon
o Right kidney and suprarenal gland
 Has porta hepatis via which portal vein, and hepatic artery

enter and bile duct exits 12/07/2024

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 Cont…
o The structural unit of the liver is the liver lobule(hepatocytes.)

o B/n adjacent lobules are branches of the hepatic aa and portal vein.

o The sinusoids receive blood from both the hepatic artery and

portal vein
o Each lobule has a central vein.

o The central veins of all the lobules unite to form the hepatic veins,

which take blood out of the liver to the inferior vena cava.
o Kupffer cells are phagocytic cells & also responsible for storing

iron, some lipids, and heavy metals

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 Bile Secretion and Transport
o Bile is produced continuously in the liver and stored and concentrated

in the gallbladder.
o The hepatocytes secrete bile into the bile canaliculi formed between

them.
o The canaliculi drain into the small interlobular biliary ducts and then

into large collecting bile ducts of the intrahepatic portal triad, which
merge to form the right and left hepatic ducts.
o The right and left hepatic ducts drain the right and left livers

o Shortly after leaving the porta hepatis, the right and left hepatic ducts

unite to form the common hepatic duct, which is joined on the right
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 The Gallbladder
o Is a pear-shaped, muscular sac

o Stores and concentrates bile prior to excretion into small intestine

o Is located in the fossa on the posterior surface of the liver’s right lobe

o Has fundus, body & neck

o Cystic duct extends from gallbladder & unite with common hepatic

duct forms common bile duct

o The common bile duct meets the pancreatic duct & empty into the

duodenal ampulla
o Releases bile into duodenum:

o only under stimulation of hormone cholecystokinin (CCK)

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  Full gallbladder contains 40–70 ml bile

Bile composition gradually changes in gallbladder:

water is absorbed

bile salts and solutes become concentrated

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 The Pancreas
o lies posterior to the stomach

o extending laterally from the duodenum toward the spleen.

o Has head, neck, body and tail

o The pancreas is almost retroperitoneal and is firmly bound to the

posterior wall of the abdominal cavity.

o Is both an exocrine and endocrine organ

o It duct drain in to the duodenum

 Main pancreatic duct to major duodenal papilla

 Accessory pancreatic duct to minor duodenal papilla
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 The Digestive
System

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 Yo u
a n k
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