IPv4

Addresses

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 INTRODUCTION

The identifier used in the IP layer of the

TCP/IP protocol suite to identify each
device connected to the Internet is called
the Internet address or IP address. An
IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that
uniquely and universally defines the
connection of a host or a router to the
Internet; an IP address is the address of
the interface.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 2

 Topics Discussed in the Section
Notation
Range of Addresses
Operations

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 3

 Note

An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.

Note

The IPv4 addresses are unique

and universal.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4

 Note

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.

Note

Numbers in base 2, 16, and 256 are

discussed in Appendix B.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 5

 Figure 5.1 Dotted-decimal notation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 6

Example 1
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary
notation to dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 11100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its
equivalent decimal number and add dots for
separation:
a. 129.11.11.239
b. 193.131.27.255
c. 231.219.139.111
d. 249.155.251.15
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 7
Example 2
Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-
decimal notation to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78
b. 221.34.7.82
c. 241.8.56.12
d. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent:
a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
b. 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010
c. 11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100
d. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 8

Example 3
Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4
addresses:
a. 111.56.045.78
b. 221.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.301.14
d. 11100010.23.14.67

Solution
a. There should be no leading zeroes (045).
b. We may not have more than 4 bytes in an IPv4
address.
c. Each byte should be less than or equal to 255.
d.A mixture of binary notation and dotted-
decimal notation.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 9

Example 4
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary
notation to hexadecimal notation.
a. 1000 0001 0000 1011 0000 1011 1110 1111
b. 1100 0001 1000 0011 0001 1011 1111 1111

Solution
We replace each group of 4 bits with its
hexadecimal equivalent. Note that 0X (or 0x) is
added at the beginning or the subscript 16 at the
end.
a. 0X 8 1 0 B 0 B E F or 810B0BEF16
b. 0X C 1 8 3 1 B F F or C1831BFF16
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 10
Example 5
Find the number of addresses in a range if the
first address is 146.102.29.0 and the last address
is 146.102.32.255.

Solution
We can subtract the first address from the last
address in base 256 (see Appendix B). The result
is 0.0.3.255 in this base. To find the number of
addresses in the range (in decimal), we convert
this number to base 10 and add 1 to the result..

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 11

Example 6
The first address in a range of addresses is
14.11.45.96. If the number of addresses in the
range is 32, what is the last address?

Solution
We convert the number of addresses minus 1 to
base 256, which is 0.0.0.31. We then add it to the
first address to get the last address. Addition is
in base 256.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 12

 Figure 5.2 Bitwise NOT operation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 13

Example 7

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 14

 Figure 3 Bitwise AND operation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 15

Example 8

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 16

 Figure 4 Bitwise OR operation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17

Example 9

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 18

CLASSFUL ADDRESSING

IP addresses, when started a few

decades ago, used the concept of
classes. This architecture is called
classful addressing. In the mid-1990s, a
new architecture, called classless
addressing, was introduced that
supersedes the original architecture. In
this section, we introduce classful
addressing because it paves the way for
understanding classless addressing and
justifies the rationale for moving to the
new
TCP/IP Protocolarchitecture.
Suite Classless addressing is
19
 Topics Discussed in the Section
Classes
Classes and Blocks
Two-Level Addressing
 Three-Level Addressing: Subnetting
 Supernetting

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 20

 Figure 5 Occupation of address space

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 21

 Figure 6 Finding the class of address

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 22

 Figure 7 Finding the class of an address using continuous checking

1 1 1 1
Start
0 0 0 0

Class: A Class: B Class: C Class: D Class: E

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 23

Example 10
Find the class of each address:
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 - A
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111 - C
c. 10100111 11011011 10001011 01101111 - B
d. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111 - E

Solution
.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 24

Example 11
Find the class of each address:
a. 227.12.14.87 -D
b. 193.14.56.22 -C
c. 14.23.120.8 -A
d. 252.5.15.111 -E
Solution
a. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D.

b. The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is C.
c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 25

 Figure 8 Netid and hostid

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 26

 Figure 9 Blocks in Class A

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 27

 Note

Millions of class A addresses

are wasted.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 28

 Figure 10 Blocks in Class B

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 29

 Note

Many class B addresses are wasted.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 30

 Figure 11 Blocks in Class C

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 31

 Note

Not so many organizations are so small

to have a class C block.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 32

 Figure 12 The single block in Class D

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 33

 Note

Class D addresses are made of one

block, used for multicasting.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 34

 Figure 13 The single block in Class E

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 35

 Note

The only block of class E addresses was

reserved for future purposes.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 36

 Note

The range of addresses allocated to an

organization in classful addressing
was a block of addresses in
Class A, B, or C.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 37

 Figure 14 Two-level addressing in classful addressing

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 38

Example 12

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 39

 Figure 15 Information extraction in classful addressing

netid 000 ... 0

First address

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 40

Example 13
An address in a block is given as 73.22.17.25.
Find the number of addresses in the block, the
first address, and the last address.

Solution
Figure 5.16 shows a possible configuration of the
network that uses this block.
1. The number of addresses in this block is N =
232−n = 16,777,216.
2. To find the first address, we keep the leftmost
8 bits and set the rightmost 24 bits all to 0s. The
first address is 73.0.0.0/8, in which 8 is the value
of n.
3. To find the last address, we keep the leftmost
8 bits and set the rightmost 24 bits all to 1s. The
last address is 73.255.255.255.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 41
 Figure 16 Solution to Example 5.13

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 42

Example 14
An address in a block is given as 180.8.17.9. Find
the number of addresses in the block, the first
address, and the last address.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 43

 Figure 17 Solution to Example 5.14

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 44

Example 15
An address in a block is given as 200.11.8.45.
Find the number of addresses in the block, the
first address, and the last address.

Solution
Figure 5.17 shows a possible configuration of the
network that uses this block.
1. The number of addresses in this block is N =
232−n = 256.
2. To find the first address, we keep the leftmost
24 bits and set the rightmost 8 bits all to 0s.
The first address is
200.11.8.0/24, in which 24 is the value of n.
3. To find the last address, we keep the leftmost
24 bits and set the rightmost 8 bits all to 1s.
The
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
last address is
45
 Figure 18 Solution to Example 5.15

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 46

 Figure 19 Sample Internet

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 47

 Note

The network address is the identifier of

a network.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 48

 Figure 20 Network addresses

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 49

 Figure 21 Network mask

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 50

 Figure 22 Finding a network address using the default mask

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 51

Example 16
A router receives a packet with the destination
address 201.24.67.32. Show how the router finds
the network address of the packet.

Solution
Since the class of the address is B, we assume
that the router applies the default mask for class
C, 255.255.255.0 to find the network address.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 52

Example 17
Three-level addressing can be found in the
telephone system if we think about the local part
of a telephone number as an exchange and a
subscriber connection:

in which 626 is the area code, 358 is the

exchange, and 1301 is the subscriber connection.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 53

Example 18
Figure 5.23 shows a network using class B
addresses before subnetting. We have just one
network with almost 216 hosts. The whole
network is connected, through one single
connection, to one of the routers in the Internet.
Note that we have shown /16 to show the length
of the netid (class B).

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 54

 Figure 23 Example 5.18

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 55

Example 19
Figure 5.24 shows the same network in Figure
5.23 after subnetting. The whole network is still
connected to the Internet through the same
router. However, the network has used a private
router to divide the network into four
subnetworks. The rest of the Internet still sees
only one network; internally the network is made
of four subnetworks. Each subnetwork can now
have almost 214 hosts. The network can belong
to a university campus with four different schools
(buildings). After subnetting, each school has its
own subnetworks, but still the whole campus is
one network for the rest of the Internet. Note
that /16 and /18 show the length of the netid and
subnetids.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 56
 Figure 5.24 Example 5.19

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 57

 Figure 25 Network mask and subnetwork mask

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 58

Example 20
In Example 5.19, we divided a class B network
into four subnetworks. The value of n = 16 and
the value of

n1 = n2 = n3 = n4 = 16 + log24 = 18.

This means that the subnet mask has eighteen 1s

and fourteen 0s. In other words, the subnet mask
is 255.255.192.0 which is different from the
network mask for class B (255.255.0.0).

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 59

Example 21
In Example 5.19, we show that a network is
divided into four subnets. Since one of the
addresses in subnet 2 is 141.14.120.77, we can
find the subnet address as:

The values of the first, second, and fourth bytes

are calculated using the first short cut for AND
operation. The value of the third byte is
calculated using the second short cut for the AND
operation.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 60

 Figure 26 Comparison of subnet, default, and supernet mask

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 61

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 62
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 63
CLASSLESS ADDRESSING

Subnetting and supernetting in classful

addressing did not really solve the
address depletion problem. With the
growth of the Internet, it was clear that a
larger address space was needed as a
long-term solution. Although the long-
range solution has already been devised
and is called IPv6, a short-term solution
was also devised to use the same address
space but to change the distribution of
addresses to provide a fair share to each
organization. The short-term solution still
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 64
 Topics Discussed in the Section
Variable –Length Blocks
Two-Level Addressing
 Block Allocation
 Subnetting

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 65

 Figure 27 Variable-length blocks in classless addressing

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 66

 Note

In classless addressing, the prefix

defines the network and the suffix
defines the host.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 67

 Figure 28 Prefix and suffix

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 68

 Note

The prefix length in classless

addressing can be 1 to 32.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 69

 Figure 29 Slash notation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 70

 Note

In classless addressing, we need to

know one of the addresses in the block
and the prefix length to define the block.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 71

Example 26
The following addresses are defined using slash
notations.

a. In the address 12.23.24.78/8, the network

mask is 255.0.0.0. The mask has eight 1s and
twenty-four 0s. The prefix length is 8; the
suffix length is 24.

b. In the address 130.11.232.156/16, the network

mask is 255.255.0.0. The mask has sixteen 1s
and sixteen 0s.The prefix length is 16; the
suffix length is 16.

c. In the address 167.199.170.82/27, the network

mask is 255.255.255.224. The mask has
twenty-seven 1s and five 0s. The prefix length
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 72
Example 27
One of the addresses in a block is
167.199.170.82/27. Find the number of addresses
in the network, the first address, and the last
address.

Solution
The value of n is 27. The network mask has
twenty-seven 1s and five 0s. It is
255.255.255.224.
a. The number of addresses in the network is 232 −
n
= 32.
b. We use the AND operation to find the first
address (network address). The first address is
167.199.170.64/27.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 73

Example 27 Continued
c. To find the last address, we first find the
complement of the network mask and then OR it
with the given address: The last address is
167.199.170.95/27.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 74

Example 28
One of the addresses in a block is
17.63.110.114/24. Find the number of addresses,
the first address, and the last address in the
block.

Solution
The network mask is 255.255.255.0.
a. The number of addresses in the network is 232 −
24
= 256.
b. To find the first address, we use the short cut
methods
discussed early in the chapter. The first
address is
17.63.110.0/24.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 75

Example 28 Continued
c. To find the last address, we use the
complement of the network mask and the first
short cut method we discussed before. The
last address is 17.63.110.255/24.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 76

Example 29
One of the addresses in a block is
110.23.120.14/20. Find the number of addresses,
the first address, and the last address in the
block.

Solution
The network mask is 255.255.240.0.
a. The number of addresses in the network is 232 −
20
= 4096.
b. To find the first address, we apply the first
short cut to bytes 1, 2, and 4 and the second
short cut to byte 3. The first address is
110.23.112.0/20.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 77

Example 29 Continued
c. To find the last address, we apply the first
short cut to bytes 1, 2, and 4 and the second
short cut to byte 3. The OR operation is applied
to the complement of the mask. The last
address is 110.23.127.255/20.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 78

Example 30
An ISP has requested a block of 1000 addresses.
The following block is granted.

a. Since 1000 is not a power of 2, 1024 addresses

are granted (1024 = 210).
b. The prefix length for the block is calculated as
n = 32 −
log21024 = 22.
c. The beginning address is chosen as 18.14.12.0
(which is
divisible by 1024).

The granted block is 18.14.12.0/22. The first

address is 18.14.12.0/22 and the last address is
18.14.15.255/22.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 79
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 80
Example 5.31
Assume an organization has given a class A block
as 73.0.0.0 in the past. If the block is not revoked
by the authority, the classless architecture
assumes that the organization has a block
73.0.0.0/8 in classless addressing.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 81

 Note

The restrictions applied in allocating

addresses for a subnetwork are
parallel to the ones used to allocate
addresses for a network.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 82

Example 5.32
An organization is granted the block
130.34.12.64/26. The organization needs four
subnetworks, each with an equal number of
hosts. Design the subnetworks and find the
information about each network.
Solution
The number of addresses for the whole network
can be found as N = 232 − 26 = 64. The first address
in the network is 130.34.12.64/26 and the last
address is 130.34.12.127/26. We now design the
subnetworks:
1. We grant 16 addresses for each subnetwork to
meet the first requirement (64/16 is a power of
2).
2. The subnetwork mask for each subnetwork is:
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 83
Example 32 Continued
3. We grant 16 addresses to each subnet starting
from the first available address. Figure 5.30
shows the subblock for each subnet. Note that
the starting address in each subnetwork is
divisible by the number of addresses in that
subnetwork.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 84

 Figure 30 Solution to Example 32

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 85

Example 33
An organization is granted a block of addresses
with the beginning address 14.24.74.0/24. The
organization needs to have 3 subblocks of
addresses to use in its three subnets as shown
below:
❑ One subblock of 118 addresses.
❑ One subblock of 62 addresses.
❑ One subblock of 14 addresses.
Solution
There are 232 − 24 = 256 addresses in this block.
The first address is 14.24.74.0/24; the last
address is 14.24.74.255/24.
a. The number of addresses in the first subblock
is not a power of 2. We allocate 128 addresses.
The subnet
TCP/IPmask is 25. The first address is 14.24.74.0/25;86
Protocol Suite
Example 33 Continued
b. The number of addresses in the second
subblock is not a power of 2 either. We allocate
64 addresses. The subnet mask is 26. The first
address in this block is 14.24.74.128/26; the
last address is 14.24.74.191/26.
c. The number of addresses in the third subblock
is not a power of 2 either. We allocate 16
addresses. The subnet mask is 28. The first
address in this block is 14.24.74.192/28; the
last address is 14.24.74.207/28.
d. If we add all addresses in the previous
subblocks, the result is 208 addresses, which
means 48 addresses are left in reserve. The
first address in this range is 14.24.74.209. The
last address is 14.24.74.255.
e. Figure
TCP/IP 5.31 shows the configuration of blocks. 87
Protocol Suite
 Figure 31 Solution to Example 33

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 88

Example 34
Assume a company has three offices: Central,
East, and West. The Central office is connected to
the East and West offices via private, WAN lines.
The company is granted a block of 64 addresses
with the beginning address 70.12.100.128/26. The
management has decided to allocate 32 addresses
for the Central office and divides the rest of
addresses between the two other offices.
1. The number of addresses are assigned as
follows:
2. We can find the prefix length for each
subnetwork:

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 89

Example 34 Continued
3. Figure 5.32 shows the configuration designed
by the management. The Central office uses
addresses 70.12.100.128/27 to 70.12.100.159/27.
The company has used three of these addresses
for the routers and has reserved the last address
in the subblock. The East office
uses the addresses 70.12.100.160/28 to
70.12.100.175/28. One of these addresses is used
for the router and the company has reserved the
last address in the subblock. The West office uses
the addresses 70.12.100.160/28 to
70.12.100.175/28. One of these addresses is used
for the router and the company has reserved the
last address in the subblock. The company uses
no address for the point-to-point connections in
WANs.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 90
 Figure 32 Example 34

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 91

Example 35
An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting
with 190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP
needs to distribute these addresses to three
groups of customers as follows:
❑ The first group has 64 customers; each needs
approximately 256 addresses.
❑ The second group has 128 customers; each
needs
approximately 128 addresses.
❑ The third group has 128 customers; each needs
approximately 64 addresses.
We design the subblocks and find out how many
addresses are still available after these
allocations.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 92

Example 35 Continued
Solution
Let us solve the problem in two steps. In the first
step, we allocate a subblock of addresses to each
group. The total number of addresses allocated
to each group and the prefix length for each
subblock can found as

Figure 5.33 shows the design for the first

hierarchical level. Figure 5.34 shows the second
level of the hierarchy. Note that we have used
the first address for each customer as the subnet
address and have reserved the last address as a
special
TCP/IP address.
Protocol Suite 93
 Figure 33 Solution to Example 35: first step

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 94

 Figure 34 Solution to Example 5.35: second step

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 95