THE CELL THEORY: Structure and

functions of major cell

components

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The cell is the:
• Basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms
• Smallest unit of life.
• Cells are often called the "building blocks of life".

Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many

biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria) or

multicellular (including plants and animals).

The number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, it has been
estimated that humans contain somewhere around 40 trillion (4×10 13) cells. Most plant and
animal cells are visible only under a microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 3 100
Cells- Basic Unit of Life
The term cell is derived from the Latin word ‘cellula’, which refers to a small room. And
cells are the functional and structural unit of life that houses many biomolecules such
as carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites in a fluid matrix called
cytoplasm enclosed within a plasma membrane.
It is of two types:
Prokaryotic– This includes organisms like bacteria, archaea, and blue-green algae
(cyanobacteria). They contain a nucleoid region but lack a fixed nucleus with a
nuclear membrane.
Eukaryotic– This includes all organisms which are not prokaryotes, which contain a
specialized region called a nucleus enclosed in a nuclear membrane that preserves
and protects complex genetic information.

A cell contains many subcellular components such as cell membranes, cytoskeleton,

organelles, and genetic information that carry out the necessary cellular processes for
survival.

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A prokaryotic cell has five essential structural components: a nucleoid (DNA),
ribosomes, cell membrane, cell wall, and some sort of surface layer, which may or
may not be an inherent part of the wall.

Structurally, there are three architectural regions:

• Appendages (attachments to the cell surface) in the form of flagella and pili (or
fimbriae);
• A cell envelope consisting of a capsule, cell wall and plasma membrane;
• A cytoplasmic region that contains the cell chromosome (DNA) and ribosomes and
various sorts of inclusions

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Generalized structure of Prokaryotic cell consists of the following:

1. Glycocalyx: This layer function as a receptor, the adhesive also provide protection to the cell wall.
2. Nucleoid: It is the location of the genetic material (DNA), large DNA molecule is condensed into the small packet.
3. Pilus: Hair like hollow attachment present on the surface of bacteria, and is used to transfers of DNA to other cells
during cell-cell adhesion.
4. Mesosomes: It is the extension of the cell membrane, unfolded into the cytoplasm their role is during the cellular
respiration.
5. Flagellum: Helps in movement, attached to the basal body of the cell.
6. Cell Wall: It provides rigidity and support for the cell.
7. Fimbriae: Helps in attachment to the surface and other bacteria while mating. These are small hair-like structure.
8. Inclusion/Granules: It helps in storage of carbohydrates, glycogen, phosphate, fats in the form of particles which
can be used when needed.
9. Ribosomes: Tiny particles which help in protein synthesis.
10. Cell membrane: Thin layer of protein and lipids, surrounds cytoplasm and regulate the flow of materials inside and
outside the cells.
11. Endospore: It helps cell in surviving during harsh conditions.
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 Eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus and different organelles to perform
different functions within the cell, though working is complex to understand.

PLANTS, ANIMALS, FUNGI, SLIME MOULDS, PROTOZOA AND ALGAE are all
EUKARYOTIC.These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can
be as much as a thousand times greater in volume.

The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is

COMPARTMENTALIZATION: the presence of membrane-bound ORGANELLES
(compartments) in which specific activities take place.

Most important among these is a CELL NUCLEUS, an organelle that houses the cell's
DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true kernel (nucleus)".
Other differences include:
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 The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor
differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
 The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called
CHROMOSOMES, which are associated with HISTONE proteins. All chromosomal DNA
is stored in the CELL NUCLEUS, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some
eukaryotic organelles such as MITOCHONDRIA also contain some DNA.
 Many eukaryotic cells are CILIATED with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important
roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus be
"viewed as a sensory cellular ANTENNAE that coordinates a large number of cellular
signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or
alternatively to cell division and differentiation.“

Motile eukaryotes can move using motile CILIA or FLAGELLA. Motile cells are absent in
CONIFERS and FLOWERING PLANTS. Eukaryotic flagella are more complex than those of
prokaryotes.
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 Nucleus: Eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus where DNA (genetic material) is stored, it helps in the
production of protein synthesis and ribosomes also. The chromosome is present inside the nucleus, which is
surrounded by the nuclear envelope. It is a bi-lipid layer and controls the passage of ions and molecules.
 Cytoplasm: It is the location where other organelles are located, and other metabolic activities of the cell
also take place here. It consists of –
o Mitochondria: It is called ‘the powerhouse of the cell,’ and is responsible for making ATP. Mitochondria has its own
DNA and ribosomes.
o Chloroplast: These are found in algae and plants, it is one of the most important organelles in the plant which helps
in converting energy sunlight into chemical energy through photosynthesis. They resemble mitochondria.
o Golgi Apparatus: It consists of a stack of many flattened, disc-shaped sacs known as cisternae. The exact nature of
Golgi varies, but it helps in the packaging of materials and in secreting them.
 Lysosomes and Vacuoles – The most important function of Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus is the
synthesis of Lysosomes, which helps in digestion of intracellular molecules with the help of the enzyme called
hydrolase.
 Vacuoles are the membrane-bound cavities containing fluid as well as solid materials, and they engulf materials
through endocytosis.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum: It transport lipids, proteins and other materials through the cell. They are of two types
smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
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 Appendages: Cilia and Flagella are locomotory attachments, helps in the movement of a cell towards
positive stimuli. Cilia are shorter than flagella and numerous.
 Surface structure: Glycocalyx is a kind of polysaccharide, and it is the outermost layer of the cell which
helps in cell adherence, protection and in receiving signals from other cells.
 Cell Wall: Cell Wall provides shapes, rigidity, and support to the cell. Compositions of the cell wall may
vary in different organisms but which can be of either cellulose, pectin, chitin or peptidoglycan.
 Cytoplasmic Membrane/Plasma Membrane: It is a thin semipermeable, surrounding the cytoplasm, it
acts as the barrier of the cell which regulates entry and exit of the substances inside and outside the
cell. This layer is made up of two layers of phospholipids embedded with proteins. In Plant cell, this
layer is present below the cell wall whereas in the Animal cell it is the outermost layer.
 Ribosomes: Though small in size but are present in numbers, they help in protein synthesis. Eukaryotes
have 80S ribosomes which are further divided into two subunits which are 40S and 60S (S stands for
Sedverg unit).
Cytoskeleton: It is supporting framework of the cells, which is of two types Microtubules and
Microfilaments. Microtubules are the largest filament having the diameter of about 24 nanometers (nm),
made up of a protein called tubulin. Microfilaments are the smallest filament of about 6nm, made of the
protein called actin.
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 Key Difference Between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells

Following are the substantial difference between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cell:

1. Prokaryotic cells are the primitive kind of cell, whose size varies from 0.5-3µm, they
are generally found in single cell organisms, while Eukaryotic cells are the modified
cell structure containing different components in it, their size varies from 2-100µm,
they are found in multicellular organisms.
2. Organelles like mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, cell wall,
chloroplast, etc. are absent in prokaryotic cells, while these organelles are found in
eukaryotic organisms. Though cell wall and chloroplast are not found in the animal
cell, it is present in the green plant cell, few bacteria, and algae.
3. The main difference between Prokaryotic cells and the Eukaryotic cell is the nucleus,
which is not well defined in prokaryotes whereas it is well structured,
compartmentalized and functional in eukaryotes.
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4. Cell organelles are present which are membrane-bound and have individual functions in
eukaryotic cells; many organelles are absent in prokaryotic cells.
5. The process of transcription and translation occurs together, and there is a single origin
of replication in the prokaryotic cell. On the other hand, there are multiple origins of
replication and transcription occurs in nucleus and translation in the cytosol.
6. Genetic Material (DNA) is circular and double-stranded in Prokaryotes, but in Eukaryotes,
it is linear and double-stranded.
7. Prokaryotes are the simplest, smallest and most abundantly found cells on earth;
Eukaryotes are larger and complex cells.
Conclusion
The cell is the basic unit of life, responsible for all biological activities of the living being
whether its prokaryote or eukaryote. Both of these cells vary in their role, like prokaryotes
are the old type of cells hence they lack a proper nucleus and other organelles too, which are
very well present in eukaryotes, as these are the evolved and advanced cells.

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 Basis For Comparison Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Size 0.5-3um 2-100um

Kind of Cell Single-cell Multicellular

Usually cell wall absent, if present (plant cells

Cell wall present, comprise of peptidoglycan
Cell Wall and fungus), comprises of cellulose
or mucopeptide (polysaccharide).
(polysaccharide).

Well-defined nucleus is absent, rather

A well-defined nucleus is present enclosed
Presence of Nucleus 'nucleoid' is present which is an open region
within nuclear memebrane.
containing DNA.

Shape of DNA Circular, double-stranded DNA. Linear, double-stranded DNA.

Mitochondria Absent Present

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Ribosome 70S 80S

Golgi Apparatus Absent Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum Absent Present

Mode of Reproduction Asexual Most commonly sexual

Binary Fission,
Cell Divison Mitosis
(conjugation, transformation, transduction)

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Absent Present

Chloroplast (Absent) scattered in the cytoplasm. Present in plants, algae.

Transcription occurs in nucleus and
Transcription and Translation Occurs together.
translation in cytosol.
Organelles are not membrane bound, if Organelles are membrane bound and are
Organelles
present any. specific in function.
Replication Single origin of replication. Multiple origins of replication.

Number of Chromosomes Only one (not true called as a plasmid). More than one.

Examples Archaea, Bacteria. Plants and Animals.

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CELLS in the human body number in the trillions and come in all shapes and sizes. These
tiny structures are the basic unit of living organisms.

Cells make up TISSUES, tissues make up ORGANS, organs form ORGAN SYSTEMS, and
organ systems work together in an organism.

There are hundreds of different types of cells in the body and the structure of a cell is
perfectly suited for the role it performs.

Cells of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, for instance, are different in structure and function
from cells of the SKELETAL SYSTEM.

No matter the differences, cells of the body depend on each another, either directly or
indirectly, to keep the body functioning as one unit.

The following are examples of different types of cells in the body.

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1. STEM CELLS are unique cells of the body in that they are unspecialized and have the
ability to develop into specialized cells for specific organs or to develop into tissues.
Stem cells are able to DIVIDE and REPLICATE many times in order to replenish and
repair tissue. In the field ofSTEM CELL RESEARCH, scientists are attempting to take
advantage of the renewal properties of stem cells by utilizing them to generate cells
for tissue repair, organ transplantation, and for the treatment of disease.

2. BONE CELLS: Bones are a type of mineralized CONNECTIVE TISSUE and a major
component of the SKELETAL SYSTEM. Bone cells form bone, which is composed of a
matrix of collagen and calcium phosphate minerals. There are three primary types of
bone cells in the body. Osteoclasts are large cells that decompose bone for resorption
and assimilation. Osteoblasts regulate bone mineralization and produce osteoid (organic
substance of bone matrix), which mineralizes to form bone. Osteoblasts mature to form
osteocytes. Osteocytes aid in the formation of bone and help maintain calcium balance.
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3. BLOOD CELLS: From transporting oxygen throughout the body to fighting infection,
cells of the BLOOD are vital to life. The three major types of cells in the blood are
RED BLOOD CELLS, WHITE BLOOD CELLD and PLATELETS.

• Red blood cells determine BLOOD TYPE and are also responsible for transporting
oxygen to cells.
• White blood cells are IMMUNE SYSTEM cells that destroy pathogens and provide
immunity.
• Platelets help to clot blood and prevent excessive blood loss due to broken or
damaged BLOOD VESSELS.
Blood cells are produced by BONE MARROW.

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4. Muscle cells form MUSCLE TISSUES, which is important for bodily movement.

• Skeletal muscle tissue attaches to BONE enabling voluntary movement. Skeletal muscle
cells are covered by CONNECTIVE TISSUE, which protects and supports the muscle fiber
bundles.
• Cardiac muscle cells form involuntary cardiac muscle found in the HEART. These cells aid
in heart contraction and are joined to one another by intercalated discs, which allow for
synchronization of the HEART BEAT.
• Smooth muscle tissue is not striated like cardiac and skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle is
involuntary muscle that lines body cavities and forms the walls of many ORGANS
(kidneys, intestines, blood vessels, lung airways, etc.).

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5. Fat cells, also called ADIPOCYTES, are the major cell component of ADIPOSE TISSUE.
Adipocytes contain droplets of STORED FAT (Triglycerides) that can be used for energy.
When fat is being stored, fat cells swell and become round in shape. When fat is being
used, these cells shrink in size.
Adipose cells also have an endocrine function as they produce HORMONES that influence
sex hormone metabolism, blood pressure regulation, insulin sensitivity, fat storage and
use, blood clotting, and cell signaling.

6. The SKIN is composed of a layer of EPITHELIAL TISSUE (epidermis) that is supported by a

layer of CONNECTIVE TISSUE (dermis) and an underlying subcutaneous layer. The
outermost layer of the skin is composed of flat, squamous epithelial cells that are closely
packed together.
The skin protects the internal structures of the body from damage, prevents dehydration,
acts as a barrier against germs, stores FAT, and produces vitamins and hormones.
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7. NERVE CELLS or neurons are the basic unit of the NERVOUS SYSTEM. Nerves send
signals among the BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, and other body organs via nerve impulses.
A neuron consists of two major parts: a cell body and nerve processes. The central cell
body contains the neuron's nucleus, associated cytoplasm, and organelles.
Nerve processes are "finger-like" projections (axons and dendrites) that extend from the
cell body and are able to conduct and transmit signals.

8. Endothelial cells form the inner lining of CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM and LYMPHATIC
SYSTEM structures. These cells makes up the inner layer of blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and organs including the brain, lungs, skin, and heart.
Endothelial cells are responsible for angiogenesis or the creation of new blood vessels.
They also regulate the movement of macromolecules, gases, and fluid between the
blood and surrounding tissues, and help to regulate blood pressure.
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9. SEX CELLS or GAMETES: are reproductive cells produced in male and female GONADS.
Male sex cells or sperm are motile and have a long, tail-like projection called a FLAGELLUM.
Female sex cells or ova are non-motile and relatively large in comparison to the male
gamete.
In SEXUAL REPRODUCTION, sex cells unite during FERTILIZATION to form a new individual.
While other body cells replicate by MITOSIS, gametes reproduce by MEIOSIS.

10. The pancreas functions as both an exocrine and endocrine organ. Exocrine acinar cells
produce and secrete digestive enzymes that are transported by ducts to the small intestine.
A very small percentage of pancreatic cells have endocrine function and secrete hormones.
Pancreatic endocrine cells are found in small clusters called islets of Langerhans. Hormones
produced by these cells include insulin, glucagon, and gastrin.
Pancreatic cells are important for regulating blood glucose concentration levels as well as
for the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
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11. CANCER CELLS: Cancer results from the development of abnormal properties
in normal cells that enable them to divide uncontrollably and spread to other
locations. Cancer cell development can be caused by MUTATIONS that occur
from factors such as chemicals, radiation, ultraviolet light, chromosome
replication errors, or viral infection.
Cancer cells lose sensitivity to anti-growth signals, proliferate rapidly, and lose
the ability to undergo APOPTOSIS or programmed cell death.

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