Chapter – 4

Construction and operation of Medical Imaging Machines

1.Introduction

2.Radiography (X-rays)
3.Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
4.Computed tomography (CT)
5.Fluoroscopy
6.Ultrasound
7.Echocardiography
 1. Introduction
 Imaging is the process of acquiring useful information about physiological process or

organs of the body by using internal or external sources of energy.

 A type of medical imaging technique that utilizes a certain physical mechanism to

detect patient internal signals that reflect either anatomical structures or physiological

events.

 Physicians and primary care providers regularly choose to order a particular medical

imaging exam based on a patient’s symptoms and potential diagnoses. By applying

their knowledge of technology and human anatomy, medical imaging technologists

capture targeted images, enabling healthcare professionals to examine areas of a
patient’s body for signs of illness or disease.
 Several types of medical imaging technologies are used in various facets of medicine.

2. Radiography (X-rays Machine)

 Radiography is an imaging technique using X-rays, gamma rays, or similar ionizing

radiation and non-ionizing radiation to view the internal form of an object.

 Applications of radiography include medical radiography ("diagnostic" and

 Introduction to Electromagnetic Spectrum
 The electromagnetic spectrum is comprised of all frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation that propagate energy and travel through space in the form of waves .
 Frequency and wavelength are both forms of electromagnetic energy.
 Frequency refers to the number of crests that pass a give point. One wave, or cycle, per
second, is called a Hertz (Hz).
 Wavelength refers to the distance between crests and they range in size from very small
to very big as seen in the illustration below.
 Electromagnetic energy travels in waves and spans a broad spectrum from very long
radio waves to very short gamma rays.
 Electromagnetic waves do not need a medium in order to propagate, which means they
can travel through air, solid materials, and also through the vacuum of space.
The X- Ray
Machine
 MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN X-RAY MACHINE
• Any X-ray apparatus, even of the simplest type, is an intricate and complicated piece of
machinery consisting of four main parts: The X-ray tube, the transformer, the tube
stand, and the control panel.

1. The X-ray tube

X-ray generation
ii.
3.The tube stand
 The tube stand is an
essential piece of
equipment in the x-
ray process.
 It holds the x-ray
tube in place and
allows the operator
to move it to many
different positions
4.Operating Console
A Complete X-ray
Machine
 Working Principles
 An X-ray is produced when a negatively charged electrode is heated by electricity and
electrons are released, thereby producing energy.
 That energy is directed toward a metal plate, or anode, at high velocity and an X-ray
is produced when the energy collides with the atoms in the metal plate.
 When you go to get an X-ray, a cassette is placed behind or under the area of concern.
 This cassette holds the film that will be exposed by the X-ray.
 As the X-ray enters your body, it passes through your skin, muscles, and organs, as
this type of soft tissue cannot absorb the energy of the X-ray.
 This appears dark on the film as it is now exposed. However, bone absorbs X-ray
energy and does not expose the film.
 This area appears light or white on the film. This is how an X-ray image is created!
TROUBLE SHOOTING AND REPAIR OF
X-RAY MACHINES
3. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Machine
 INTRODUCTION
 Test that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy
to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body is
called Magnetic resonant Imaging .
 Certain atomic nuclei ,such as hydrogen, demonstrate the ability to
absorb and re-emit radiofrequency energy when placed in a magnetic
field. This is the nuclear magnetic resonance phenomena(NMR).
 66% of human body is water. The water molecule comprises hydrogen
and oxygen.
 The hydrogen atom nuclei behaves as a tiny magnet.
 Human body contains such billions and billions of tiny magnets
of hydrogen nuclei being randomly positioned.
A hydrogen atom as
a tiny magnet
 When a human body is subjected to a strong rotating magnetic field
most of the hydrogen nuclei moves in the same speed( frequency) of the
rotating magnetic field.
 The one that doesn’t move along with the magnetic field are hydrogen
nuclei with the low energy level.
 To create an image of the body part, the machine focus on the low energy
level hydrogen nuclei.
 Radio frequency at the same rotational speed(frequency) of the rotating
magnetic field in MRI machine is sent to the body .
 The so called the resonant phenomena occurs. This phenomena enables
 the low energy level hydrogen nuclei absorbs the energy they need to move
alongside the magnetic field.
- When stops emitting the radio wave the hydrogen nuclei already running
in the same frequency with the magnetic field releases the energy they
absorbed and go back to their original position.
- This movement of the hydrogen nuclei is detected by the MRI machine
controller and the signal is send to a powerful computer which uses
imaging software to translate the information in to an image of the body.
- By taking the image of the body in each section of the magnetic field the
machine produces a final three dimensional image of the organ which
doctors can analyze to make a diagnosis.
.
Computed
Tomography
 Allows Doctors to
see inside the
body with out
cutting.
 4.Computed Tomography (CT)
Machine
Computed tomography (CT) is an imaging
procedure that uses special x-ray equipment to create
detailed pictures, or scans, of areas inside the body.

It is also called Computerized Axial Tomography

(CAT)-CAT scan machine.

The term tomography comes from the Greek

words tomos (a cut, a slice, or a section)
and graphein (to write or record).
Each cross-sectional image represents a “slice” of
the person being imaged, like the slices in a loaf of
bread.
These cross-sectional images are used for a variety
of diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
CT-scans provide detailed cross-sectional images of

various internal structures for example internal organs,

blood vessels, bones, soft tissue etc,

The cross-sectional images generated during a CT scan

can be reformatted in multiple planes, and can even

generate three-dimensional images which can be viewed on

a computer monitor, printed on film or transferred to

electronic media.

Although most common in medicine, CT is also used in

other fields, such as nondestructive

Main components of
a CT machine
Gantry/
Radiation Detector
 Working of the CT machine

 A motorized table moves the patient through a circular

opening in the CT imaging system.
 While the patient is inside the opening, an X-ray source
and a detector assembly within the system rotate around
the patient.
 A single rotation typically takes a second or less. During
rotation the X-ray source produces a narrow, fan-shaped
beam of X-rays that passes through a section of the
patient's body.
 Detectors in rows opposite the X-ray source register
the X-rays that pass through the patient's body as a
snapshot in the process of creating an image.
 Many different "snapshots" (at many angles through
the patient) are collected during one complete
rotation.
• For each rotation of the X-ray source and detector
assembly, the image data are sent to a computer to
reconstruct all of the individual "snapshots" into one
or multiple cross-sectional images (slices) of the
internal organs and tissues.
5.Fluoroscopy Machine
Fluoroscopy is a study of moving body structures-similar to

an X-ray "movie."

A continuous X-ray beam is passed through the body part

being examined.

The beam is transmitted to a TV-like monitor so that the

body part and its motion can be seen in detail.

 Fluoroscopy, as an imaging tool, enables physicians to

look at many body systems, including the skeletal, digestive,

urinary, respiratory, and reproductive systems.

Fluoroscopy may be performed to evaluate specific areas

of the body, including the bones, muscles, and joints, as

well as solid organs, such as the heart, lung, or kidneys.

Other related procedures that may be used to

diagnose problems of the bones, muscles, or joints

include X-rays, myelography ( myelogram ),

computed tomography ( CT scan ), magnetic

resonance imaging ( MRI ), and arthrography.

6.Ultrasound Machine
 It is a medical imaging method that uses
sound waves on a body’s internal organs
for testing, diagnostic, or therapeutic
reasons.
 The sound waves travel through the body
and are converted into an ultrasound
image showing the condition and
 This allows medical staff to diagnose
problems and decide on treatment
programs.
 Using medical ultrasound imaging allows
doctors to diagnose problems with
internal organs and sources of
inflammation or pain in the body.
 Not only that, but ultrasound imaging is
 women to monitor the growth of a fetus
inside the body.
 This imaging technique uses ultrasound
waves, which are very high-frequency
sound waves.
 These sound waves cannot be heard or
differentiated by human ears.
Parts of Ultra sound
Machine
A basic ultrasound machine has the following parts:
•transducer probe - probe that sends and receives the
sound waves.
•central processing unit (CPU) - computer that does all
of the calculations and contains the electrical power
supplies for itself and the transducer probe
•transducer pulse controls - changes the amplitude,
frequency and duration of the pulses emitted from the
transducer probe
•display - displays the image from the ultrasound data
processed by the CPU
•keyboard/cursor - inputs data and takes measurements
from the display
•disk storage device (hard, floppy, CD) - stores the acquired
images
•printer - prints the image from the displayed data
7.Echocardiography
 Electrocardiography is the process of
producing an electrocardiogram (ECG or
EKG), a recording of the heart's
electrical activity through repeated
cardiac cycles.
 It is an electro gram of the heart which
is a graph of voltage versus time of the
 the skin.
 These electrodes detect the small
electrical changes that are a
consequence of cardiac muscle
depolarization followed by repolarization
during each cardiac cycle (heartbeat).
 Changes in the normal ECG pattern
occur in numerous cardiac
fibrillation and ventricular
tachycardia, inadequate coronary
artery blood flow (such as myocardial
ischemia and myocardial infarction,
and electrolyte disturbances (such as
hypokalemia and hyperkalemia.
A basic ultrasound machine has the following parts:
•transducer probe - probe that sends and receives the
sound waves
•central processing unit (CPU) - computer that does all of
the calculations and contains the electrical power
supplies for itself and the transducer probe
•transducer pulse controls - changes the amplitude,
frequency and duration of the pulses emitted from the
 transducer probe
•display - displays the image from the ultrasound data
processed by the CPU
•keyboard/cursor - inputs data and takes measurements
from the display
•disk storage device (hard, floppy, CD) - stores the
acquired images
•printer - prints the image from the displayed data