Unit -2 OB Section. 3RD E

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Chandigarh School

Of Business

Management Department
Bachelor of Business
Administration
BBA- 3 Semester Perception
Attitude
Organizational Behaviour Personality
BBA-301 Motivation

Ms. Poonam Rehal


Assistant Professor
Mail: poonam.j2306@cgc.ac.in

CAMPUS: JHANJERI, MOHALI


Unit-2
Perception: Nature, importance, perceptual process, factors influencing
perception, perceptual errors.

Attitude: Meaning, importance, components and types of work related


attitude.

Personality: Meaning, determinants of personality, personality traits.

Motivation: Meaning, types of motivation, theories of work motivation


given by Maslow, Herzberg, McGregor, Vroom and Porter – Lawler.
Perception
Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli to
meaningful information. It is the process of interpreting something that we see or
hear in our mind and use it later to judge and give a verdict on a situation, person,
group etc.
It can be divided into six types −
Of sound − The ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.
Of speech − The competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of
language heard.
Touch − Identifying objects through patterns of its surface by touching it.
Taste − The ability to receive flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory
organs known as taste buds.
Other senses − They approve perception through body, like balance,
acceleration, pain, time, sensation felt in throat and lungs etc.
Of the social world − It permits people to understand other individuals and
groups of their social world. Example − Priya goes to a restaurant and likes their
customer service, so she will perceive that it is a good place to hang out and will
recommend it to her friends, who may or may not like it. Priya’s perception about
the restaurant is good.
Nature of Perception

• Intellectual Process
• Psychological Process
• Subjective Process
• Socially Connected
• Culturally influenced
• Self- fulfilling
Importance of Perception

• Helps in Understanding Human Behaviour


• Helps in Forecasting Behaviour
• Facilitates Needs Determination
• Assists in Handling Subordinates
Characteristics of the Perceiver

1. Cognitive Abilities: The perceiver's cognitive abilities, including memory,


attention, and problem-solving skills, can significantly impact perception.
2. Expectations: A person's expectations, based on past experiences or cultural
background, can shape their perception. If you expect a restaurant to have a
particular ambiance or a movie to follow a certain plot, you may perceive these
things accordingly.
3. Beliefs and Values: For example, a person with strong environmental values
may perceive a company's actions differently from someone who prioritizes
economic growth.
4. Motivation
5. Emotional State: When a person is in a highly emotional state, such as anger or
fear, they may perceive neutral events or stimuli as more threatening or negative
than they actually are.
6. Personality: For example, an optimistic person may tend to perceive situations
more positively, while a pessimistic person may have a more negative
perception.
7. Attitudes: If someone holds a negative attitude toward a certain group, they
may perceive members of that group in a more negative light.
8. Knowledge and Experience: The perceiver's knowledge and past experiences
influence their ability to recognize and interpret sensory information accurately.
9. Health and Physical Abilities
10. Social and Cultural Influences
11. Stress and Fatigue: High levels of stress or fatigue can impair perception by
reducing attention and cognitive resources available for processing sensory
information.
2. Characteristics of Target: perception and social psychology, the "target"
refers to the person or object that an individual is perceiving, evaluating, or
interacting with. The characteristics of the target play a significant role in how
individuals perceive and respond to them.
1. Physical Appearance 2. Behavior
3. Emotional Expressions 4. Communication Style
5. Status and Social Role 6. Similarity & Familiarity
7. Past Experiences 8. Attributions
Characteristics of the Situation
• The characteristics of a situation, also known as situational factors, can
significantly influence how people perceive, interpret, and behave in a given
context.
• Time
• Work setting
• Social setting
Time: The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target
takes place has an influence on the perceiver’s impression of the target.For
Example, a person decked up for a party may not be noticeable but the same
dress in office would be noticed distinctly, though the person has not changed.
Work setting: You would have very frequently heard people say that their
manager is different during working hours and 1800 opposite while in a social
setting.
Social setting: The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception.
Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour.
Perceptual Process
Perceptual Input
• Perceptual inputs in the form of stimuli are not the part of actual perceptual
process though these are necessary for the occurrence of perception.
• Stimuli may be in the form of objects, events or people. The process of
perception starts with a stimuli. Through our sensory organs we receive various
stimuli. Stimuli take five forms we see things, we hear sounds, we smell, we
taste and we touch things.
Perceptual Throughout/ during the perception
Receiving is the first and most important stage in the process of perception. It
is the initial stage in which a person collects all information and receives the
information through the sense organs.
Selecting is the second stage in the process. Here a person doesn’t receive the
data randomly but selectively. A person selects some information out of all in
accordance with his interest or needs. The selection of data is dominated by
various external and internal factors.
• External factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual
externally are intensity, size, contrast, movement, repetition, familiarity, and
novelty.
• Internal factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual
internally are psychological requirements, learning, background, experience,
self-acceptance, and interest.
Organizing Keeping things in order or say in a synchronized way is organizing.
In order to make sense of the data received, it is important to organize them. We
can organize the data by −
• Grouping them on the basis of their similarity, proximity, closure, continuity.
• Establishing a figure ground is the basic process in perception. Here by figure
we mean what is kept as main focus and by ground we mean background
stimuli, which are not given attention.
• Perceptual constancy that is the tendency to stabilize perception so that
contextual changes don’t affect them.

Interpreting Finally, we have the process of interpreting which means forming


an idea about a particular object depending upon the need or interest.
Interpretation means that the information we have sensed and organized, is
finally given a meaning by turning it into something that can be categorized. It
includes stereotyping, halo effect etc.

• Perceptual Output based on perceptual throughput which end with


interpretation of stimuli, generate output. These output may be attitudes,
opinions, beliefs, about the stimuli under consideration.
Errors of Perception
1. Central Tendency: – Appraising everyone at the middle of the rating scale.
2. Contrast Error: – Basing an appraisal on comparison with other employees
rather than on established performance criteria.
3. Different from me: – Giving a poor appraisal because the person has qualities
or characteristics not possessed by the appraiser.
4. Halo Effect: – Appraising an employee undeservedly on one quality
(performance, for example) because s/he is perceived highly by the appraiser
on another quality (attractiveness).
5. Horn Effect: – The opposite of the halo effect. Giving someone a poor
appraisal on one quality (attractiveness) influences poor rating on other
qualities. (Performance)
6. Initial Impression: – Basing an appraisal on first impressions rather than on
how the person has behaved throughout the period to which appraisal relates.
7. Latest Behavior: – Basing an appraisal on the person’s recent behavior.
8. Lenient or Generous Rating: – Perhaps the most common error, being
consistently generous in appraisal mostly to avoid conflict.
9. Performance Dimension Error: – Giving someone a
similar appraisal on two distinct but similar qualities,
because they happen to follow each other on the appraisal
form.
10. Spillover Effect: – Basing this appraisal, good or bad,
on the results of the previous appraisal rather than on how
the person has behaved during the appraisal period.
11.Status Effect: – Giving those in higher level positions
consistently better appraisals than those in lower level
jobs.
12.Strict Rating: – Being consistently harsh in appraising
performance.
Components of Perception

• 1. Stimuli
• 2. Attention
• 3. Recognition
• 4. Translation
• 5. Behaviour
• 6. Performance
• 7. Satisfaction
Attitude
• An attitude is a positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an object expressed at some
level of intensity. It is an expression of a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a
person, place, thing, or event. These are fundamental determinants of our perceptions
of and actions toward all aspects of our social environment. Attitudes involve a
complex organization of evaluative beliefs, feelings, and tendencies toward certain
actions.

Types of Attitude
Sense of responsibility
1. Positive Attitude: A positive attitude means • Optimism
how positive a person thinks. With positive • Cheerfulness/Happiness
thinking, a person can bring positive change in • Tolerance
his life. A positive attitude organizes a person’s • Determination
behaviour as it keeps his work moving & • Sincerity
progressing, which means maintaining a positive • Flexibility
viewpoint gives many benefits in any kind of • Humility
situation. • Reliability
• Confidence
• Positive attitude traits are as follows: • Diligence
• 2. Negative Attitude: A negative attitude is a temperament, feeling, or manner that is
not cooperative, constructive, or optimistic. It can affect anyone, and anywhere. A
negative attitude badly affects a person's mindset, which forms anger, doubt, and
frustration human behaviour like this will affect a person's career.
• Anger • Inferiority
• Jealousy • Frustration
• Hatred • Pessimism
• Doubt • Resentment

• 3. Neutral Attitude: In this type of attitude, everything is neutral as there is


no hope, and doubt, people usually become lazy and unemotional they don't
care much for anything; they simply go with the flow. People with a neutral
attitude don’t give sufficient importance to events or situations. They
generally ignore the problems and leave them for someone else to solve.
•Complacence
• Neutral attitude traits include: •Detachment
•Indifference
•Unemotional
•A feeling of being disconnected
Components of Attitude
Cognitive Component
• The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we
would associate with an object. It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. It refers
to that part of attitude which is related in general knowledge of a person. Example:
Typically these come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as ‘all babies are cute’,
‘smoking is harmful to health’ etc.

• Affective Component: Affective component is the emotional or feeling segment of an


attitude. It is related to the statement which affects another person. It deals with feelings or
emotions that are brought to the surface about something, such as fear or hate. Using the
above example, someone might have the attitude that they love all babies because they are
cute or that they hate smoking because it is harmful to health.

• Behavioral Component: Behavior component of an attitude consists of a person’s


tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an object. It refers to that part of
attitude which reflects the intention of a person in the short-run or long run. Using
the above example, the behavioral attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to kiss the baby’,
or ‘we better keep those smokers out of the library, etc.
Job Related Attitude
• 1) Job satisfaction :Job satisfaction relates to the overall attitude or feelings
of a person towards his job. An individual, who is highly satisfied with his job
has a positive attitude towards the job. Whereas, a person who is dissatisfied
with his job will have a negative view of it.

• Determinants of Job Satisfaction

• Individual Factor
• Level of education
• Nature of job

• 2) Job Involvement refers to the psychological and sentimental extent to


which a person engages in his profession, work, and organisation. This
working attitude manifests itself through the extent to which people are
immersed in their job tasks. Managers need to understand the causes and
consequences of job involvement because of its association with motivation
and satisfaction.
Organisational Commitment

• The third job attitude that affects organizational behaviour is organisational


commitment. Organisational commitment is a concept that has to do with the
degree of commitment and loyalty that employees display towards employers.
An employee identifies with a particular organisation and its goals and wishes
to keep membership in the organisation

• Whereas job involvement refers to identification with one's particular job,


organisational commitment means identifying with one's employing
organisation and its purposes. Absenteeism and turnover are low when an
employee has organisational commitment.

• Seldom, an employee may be disappointed with the job, but he may not be
disappointed with the organisation as a whole. In such a case, he may hold with
the organisation because he may think it is a passing situation. But once the
dissatisfaction increases with the organisation as a whole, he is most likely to
think about resigning from the job.
Motivation
• Motivation is derived from the word 'movere' which means to move. It is the
process of arousing action, sustaining activity in progress, regulating and
directing pattern of activity through energy transformations within the tissues
of the organism. Some of the aspects of motivation are stressed by the terms:
incentive, intention, impulse, desire, drive, determination, need, urge, wish,
want, will, longing appetite, attitude, bias, prejudice, set, readiness, purpose
and the like.
• According to Thompson, "Motivation covers any and every factor of the
spring of human action from the beginning to the end i.e., attitudes, bias, urge,
impulse, cravings, incentive, desire, wish, interest, will, intention, longing,
aim.“
• According to Johnson, "Motivation is the influence of general pattern of
activities indicating and directing behaviour of the organism.
• Process of Motivation
• The elements of the process of motivation are: (1) Motivates, (2) Behaviour,
(3) Goal, (4) Feedback.
Sources of Motivation
• (1) Needs:- In the words of Boring, Langfeld and Weld, "A need is a tension
within on organism which tends to organise the field of organism with respect
to certain incentives or goals and to incite activity directed towards their
attainment. The needs can be classified in two categories:
1. Physiological Needs:- Physiological needs are those needs that are necessary
for survival of the individual e.g., need for food, rest, sleep, light, elimination
of all sorts, and needs for activity.
2. Psychological Needs:- Psychological needs include need for belongingness,
need for security, need for status and prestige, need for self-confidence, need
for achievement, need for independence, need for self-actualisation etc.
(2) Drive:- Drive is an original source of energy that activates the human
organism. It is an intra-organic activity or condition of tissue supplying
stimulation for a particular type of behaviour. In words of Shaffer and others, "A
drive is a strong persistent stimulus that demands an adjunctive response.“
(3) Incentive:- Those environmental things which satisfy the drives of a living
being are called incentives. For example, hunger drive is satisfied with food, so
food is called incentive.
Types of Motivation
• 1. Positive Motivation:According to Peter Drunker, the real and positive motivators
are responsible for placement, high standard of performance, information adequate
for self control and the participation of the worker as a responsible citizen in the plant
community. Positive motivation is achieved by the co-operation of employees and
they have a feeling of happiness.
• 2. Negative Motivation: Negative or fear motivation is based on force or fear. Fear
causes employees to act in a certain way. In case, they do not act accordingly then
they may be punished with demotions or lay-offs. The fear acts as a push mechanism.
The employees do not willingly co-operate, rather they want to avoid the punishment.
• Theories of Motivation
• 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• 2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
• 3. Theory X& Y OF motivation By Mc Gregor
• 4. Vroom’s expectancy theory
• 5. Porter And Lawler Theory Of Motivation
Content theories-
Identify people’s needs and goals.
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 Alderfer's ERG Theory
 Herzberg’s two factor theory
 McClelland’s Achievement Need Theory

• Process theories-Understand how and why people are motivated.


 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Porter and Lawler Model
(Content theories ) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory is regarded as one of the most popular
theories on motivation. It is a theory of psychology that explains that humans
are highly motivated in order to fulfill their needs, which is based on
hierarchical order.
• It was first introduced by Abraham Maslow in 1943 for his paper titled Theory
of Motivation and is based on a hierarchy of needs, which starts with the most
basic needs and subsequently moves on to higher levels.
• The main goal of this need hierarchy theory is to attain the highest position or
the last of the needs, i.e. need for self actualization
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

• In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioral scientist proposed a two-factor


theory or the motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, the opposite of
“Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No
Dissatisfaction”.
• Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

1. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for
existence of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction
for long-term. But if these factors are absent / if these factors are non-existant
at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. These factors are extrinsic to
work. Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or maintenance
factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors include:
1. Pay
2. Company policies and administration policies
3. Fringe Benefits
4. Physical Working Condition
• Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be
regarded as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction.
These factors are inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for a
superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors
involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors intrinsically
rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were
perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include:
• Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their
accomplishments by the managers.
• Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement.
This depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
• Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and
advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to
perform well.
• Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the
work. The managers should give them ownership of the work. They should
minimize control but retain accountability.
• Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful,
interesting and challenging for the employee to perform and to get
motivated.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Clayton Alderfer's ERG (Existence, Relatedness and Growth) theory is
built upon Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory.
Alderfer collapses Maslow's five levels of needs into three categories:
• Physiological and Safety needs merged into Existence Needs.
• Social needs named as Relatedness Needs.
• Self-esteem and Self-actualization needs merged into Growth Needs.
Vroom’s Expectancy theory (Process Theories)
• Victor H. Vroom developed the expectancy theory in 1964, producing a
systematic explanatory theory of workplace motivation.

1 2
Individual Individual Organisational
Effort Performance Rewards

1. Effort-Performance relationship = Expectancy

2. Performance-Rewards relationship = Instrumentality Personal


Goals
3. Rewards-Personal goals relationship = Valence
Porter And Lawler Theory
• The Porter and Lawler model is dependent on value of reward and perceived
effort-reward probability. Components of the model are:
• Expectancy which includes performance-outcome expectancy and effort-
performance expectancy
• Instrumentality the combination of abilities, traits, and role perceptions
• Valence preference for anticipated outcomes. Valence is represented by the
value of reward.
• The Porter and Lawler model is dependent on value of reward and perceived
effort-reward probability.
• Effort leads to performance, which is affected by the abilities, traits and the
role perceptions of the individual.
• Performance, influences actual rewards—intrinsic or extrinsic—perceived
equitable rewards, and exerts a long-term influence (feedback) on perceived
effort-reward probability.
• The rewards and their perceived equity then influence satisfaction, which has a
long-term influence (feedback) on the value of reward.
The Porter-Lawler Model

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