Components of a

Computer
Ms. Vandita Srivastava
Ph.D. Scholar
School of Information Technology, Artificial Intelligence and Cyber Security
Rashtriya Rakha University
What is a computer
• An electronic machine that is used for storing, organizing, and finding words, numbers,
and pictures, for doing calculations. A computer is a machine that can store
and process information.
• The first large computers, used in demanding business, big data analytics, and other
applications, are referred to as mainframe computers. (The name dates back to the days
when the processor took up an entire large frame, or mounting rack, stretching from the
computer room’s floor to the ceiling.)
• The somewhat less powerful (and considerably less expensive) machines that came to be
used by small groups or individuals were smaller than mainframes and picked up the tag
of minicomputers
• Microcomputer refers to any machine using a microprocessor (or single-chip CPU) as its
main processor. Because this is true of virtually all computers of the 21st century, the term
has largely lost the ability it once had to distinguish between different classes of systems.
Modern classification (All
microcomputers)
• Personal computers (both desktop and portable machines, including laptops, notebooks, and
netbooks);
• Scientific and engineering workstations, which include high-performance CPUs and GPUs to
support applications such as CAD and data visualization;
• Mobile computers, such as tablets, smartphones, smart watches, etc., which are designed to
be easily carried or even worn by the user;
• Microcontrollers, which are embedded inside other products, including appliances, consumer
electronics, automobiles, and so on;
• Game consoles, which are specialized machines designed to interact in real time with users and
provide realistic virtual environments for game play;
• Digital signal processors (DSPs), which are used to process digitized audio, video, and other
analog information; and supercomputers, the most powerful machines of all, used to perform
the intensive “number-crunching” needed to solve large-scale scientific and engineering
problems.
Hardware
The physical elements of a computer, its hardware, are
generally divided into the central processing unit (CPU), main
memory (or random-access memory, RAM), and peripherals.
• RAM
• ROM
• Motherboard
• CMOS battery
• Hard-drive
• Disk Geometry Optical Media
• Other Storage devices like pen-drive, SD card
Computer memory systems
• The most popular types of memory are semiconductor chips
(integrated circuits) and magnetic and optical media.
• Semiconductor memories in general possess the advantage of speed.
This is why the main memory space of virtually all modern computers
is populated exclusively with semiconductor device.
• magnetic and optical devices are relegated to the role of secondary or
tertiary (backup) storage.
Random Access Memory
• RAM (random access memory) is a computer's short-term memory,
where the data that the processor is currently using is stored.
• Computer can access RAM memory much faster than data on long-
term storage devices (twenty to hundred times faster), which is why
RAM capacity is critical for system performance.
• It is a temporary or volatile storage that gets wiped off when
computer is turned off.
• The more RAM a computer has, the faster it runs.
• Transistors are the building blocks of RAM. They act as electronic
switches that control the flow of electrical signals in memory cells.
Each bit of data in RAM is stored in a memory cell, and the design of
this memory cell depends on whether the RAM is DRAM or SRAM.
Types of RAM: DRAM and SRAM
Feature SRAM (Static RAM) DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

SRAM is made up of multiple transistors DRAM uses a capacitor to store each bit, which
Definition
that form a latch to store each bit of data. requires regular refreshing to retain the data.

Stores data using a latch made of several Stores data using a capacitor and a single
Storage Element
transistors (usually 6). transistor per bit.
Memory Cell 6 transistors per bit. 1 transistor + 1 capacitor per bit.
Does not require refreshing as the latch Requires periodic refreshing to retain data due
Data Retention
holds the data. to capacitor leakage.

Faster because it does not need to refresh

Speed Slower due to the need for periodic refreshing.
and can access data in parallel.

Consumes more power because it must Consumes less power since it only uses power
Power Consumption
continuously keep transistors active. during access and refreshing cycles.

Smaller in physical size since it uses

Size Larger in size because it uses capacitors.
several transistors per bit.
 Feature SRAM (Static RAM) DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

Storage Capacity Typically has less storage capacity due to higher Typically has higher storage capacity because it can pack
transistor count per bit. more bits into the same area.

Placement of Memory Often placed in CPU caches and registers, or on Placed in the main memory of the computer and in
the motherboard in smaller sizes. expansion cards.

Density Lower density due to the use of more transistors Higher density as fewer components are needed to store
per bit. each bit.

Cost More expensive per bit due to higher transistor Less expensive per bit because it uses fewer transistors
count and larger size. and can fit more memory in smaller space.

Number of Transistors Uses more transistors (6 per bit) to store each bit Uses fewer transistors (1 per bit) alongside capacitors.
of data.

Power Consumption Consumes more power due to the continuous Consumes less power except during refresh cycles.
operation of transistors.
Used in CPU caches, registers, and high-speed
Applications applications like real-time digital signal Used as the main memory in computers and other
processing. general-purpose memory applications.

Advantages Faster, simpler design, more power-efficient, and More storage capacity, less expensive per bit, and more
easy to interface with the CPU. suitable for large-scale memory needs.

Limitations Smaller size, more expensive, less storage Slower, requires periodic refreshing, higher power
capacity, and uses more space on chips. consumption for large-scale memory operations.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
• It is a memory device or storage medium that stores information
permanently.
• The manufacturer of ROM fills the programs into the ROM at the time of
manufacturing the ROM. After this, the content of the ROM can't be altered,
which means you can't reprogram, rewrite, or erase its content later.
However, there are some types of ROM where you can modify the data.
• Eg,: For booting up the computer, It loads the operating system into the main
memory (RAM) installed on your computer. The BIOS program, which is also
present in the computer memory (ROM) is used by the microprocessor of the
computer to start the computer during the booting process. It allows you to
open the computer and connects the computer with the operating system.
 Types of ROM
Feature MROM (Masked ROM) PROM (Programmable ROM) EPROM (Erasable EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable ROM) Programmable ROM)

A type of ROM that is A type of ROM that can be A type of ROM that can be A type of ROM that can be
Definition programmed during programmed once after programmed and erased using electrically programmed and
manufacturing and cannot manufacturing using special ultraviolet (UV) light. erased multiple times.
be reprogrammed. equipment.

Can be erased and

Programmability Not programmable by the Can be programmed once by Can be erased and reprogrammed electronically,
user; factory-programmed. the user. reprogrammed using UV light. without needing UV light.

Permanent; data cannot be Data can be erased and Data can be erased and
Data Retention changed after Permanent once programmed; reprogrammed multiple times reprogrammed multiple times
manufacturing. data cannot be changed. with UV exposure. electronically.

Erased by applying an
Erasure Method Data cannot be erased or
changed.
Data cannot be erased once
programmed.
Erased by exposing the chip to electrical charge to specific
ultraviolet (UV) light. sections of the memory.

Reusability Non-reusable. Non-reusable; write-once Reusable after UV erasure. Reusable after electronic
memory. erasure.
 Feature MROM (Masked ROM) PROM (Programmable ROM) EPROM (Erasable EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable ROM) Programmable ROM)

Read speed is fast, but Fast read speed and relatively

Speed Fast read speed, as it's Fast read speed, but can only programming and erasing are faster reprogramming
hardwired. be written to once. slower due to UV exposure. compared to EPROM.

Cheapest among all types of More expensive than PROM, More expensive than EPROM
Cost ROM due to mass Slightly more expensive than as it requires special UV due to electrical erasure and
production. MROM. equipment for erasing. programming capability.

Used in devices where the Used in applications where the Used in modern applications
firmware never needs to be firmware needs to be Used in applications where like microcontrollers, memory
Applications updated, such as calculators programmed only once, like updates may be needed, like cards, and firmware where
or older hardware. early firmware in devices. BIOS chips in older computers. frequent updates are needed.

Can endure a large number of

Write/Erase No write or erase cycles (one- One-time programmable, no Multiple erase cycles (limited write/erase cycles (hundreds to
Cycles time setup). erase cycles. by UV exposure durability). thousands).

No power required for data No power required for data

Power No power required for data No power required for data retention, but UV light for retention; electric power
Requirement retention. retention. erasure. required for programming and
erasure.
Memory Dump
• A memory dump is taking all the information in your device’s
working memory (RAM) and creating a copy of it in your
computer's hard drive. This process happens automatically
when a computer crashes and right before the power turns off.
• A complete memory dump will contain all data from memory
(RAM) when the device stopped, including information like:
• Activities the user has undertaken in a session.
• Detailed system information.
• Disk passwords and encryption keys.
• Details of documents that were open.
• Account usernames and passwords.
• If hackers gain access to your memory dump that
contains sensitive information, they may find your passwords
or decryption keys, exposing you to serious risks.
 Case Study: Case of a missing girl
• A teenage (13 Year old) girl went missing from her parents’ home in the middle of the night. The police checked every
location where the girl could naturally hide, including her school, her close friends, and even a dancing club where the
teenager was practicing her dance skills and soon ran out of places to look.
• The digital forensics department were investigating the girl’s personal laptop within their lab. Immediately after waking
up the laptop, the investigators captured its memory dump. Computers’ volatile memory may contain the most recent
evidence such as last-minute chats or messages sent and received with social networks. Upon the analysis, investigator
discovered several recent chat messages from a popular social network.
• Checking the girl’s social media account was among one of the first things her parents did, with no meaningful results:
the most recent chats were not alarming at all.
• However, the chats found with the help of memory analysis appeared strange to the parents. The chats did not
originate from the girl’s account. Confusingly, the account that the messages were sent from, appeared to belong to a
31-year-old adult male.
• Utilizing a known account name, the investigators were able to parse the Chrome password storage and were able to
identify a cached password to that account. The police were then able to successfully log into that account.
• It appeared that the missing teenage girl had created a fake social media account to hide messages from her parents.
The girl’s parents were able to identify the username of who the messages were being sent to as one of their
daughter’s friends.
• As it turned out, the girl had made arrangements to spend a few nights in her friend's home without telling her
parents.
• A special response unit was dispatched to her classmate’s home, where the missing girl was retrieved and safely
returned home.
Motherboard
• A motherboard is the principal printed circuit board (PCB) in a
computer or laptop that serves as the primary hub for connecting
numerous hardware additives.
• It acts because of the communication spine, allowing these types of
additives to create artwork collectively and enabling the computer
system or laptop to function. It affords the electrical and physical
connections for the CPU (Central Processing Unit), RAM (Random
Access Memory), storage devices, picture playing cards, and unique
crucial hardware. The motherboard additionally includes connectors
and ports for peripherals, together with USB devices, networking, and
audio.
Components of a motherboard
• CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a motherboard. It facilitates
the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed or removed.
• RAM Slot: It is a memory slot to install the RAM. There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.
• Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the motherboard,
which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion card.
• Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between them. These parts are
wrapped in a plastic container.
• Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around an iron core. It acts as
an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.
• Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU interface, AGP, and
memory.
• USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your computer.
• PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI devices like
modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.
• AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.
• Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.
• Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.
• CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a memory that stores the BIOS
settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.
• In a mobile phone, the motherboard is usually a compact and integrated unit
because of the device's small length. It houses the CPU (Central Processing
Unit), RAM (Random Access Memory), garage, and diverse exclusive critical
additives.
• In laptops, the motherboard is more and more complicated, as it needs to
house greater hardware components, which incorporate the CPU, GPU
(Graphics Processing Unit), RAM, garage drives, ports, and connectors. Laptop
motherboards can also include abilities like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth modules.
• Tablets, like smartphones, have smaller and additional included motherboards
as compared to laptops. They incorporate the essential components required
for their operation, along with the CPU, RAM, and storage; however, they are
designed to be as compact as possible to fit within the pill's slim shape.
CMOS Battery
• The CMOS battery powers the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) firmware in your
laptop.
• BIOS needs to remain operational even when your computer isn’t plugged into a
power source. That’s where the battery comes in. When your computer gets
unplugged, BIOS relies on the CMOS battery for power.
• You’ll find CMOS batteries in both laptops and desktop PCs, but it’s used more
frequently in a laptop. That’s because laptops are usually unplugged for a longer
amount of time than desktop PCs. Most desktop PCs are unplugged from their
power source very infrequently.
• The CMOS battery gets charged whenever your laptop is plugged in. It’s only when
your laptop is unplugged that the battery loses charge. Most batteries will last 2 to
10 years from the date they’re manufactured. The more you leave your laptop
plugged in, the longer your battery will last.
• When your CMOS battery fails, your BIOS firmware will shut down and revert to its
default settings
Forensics
• BIOS tampering can be a method used by attackers to manipulate a system’s
startup process, install rootkits, or disable security features, making it harder for
forensic investigators to detect evidence of intrusion. Forensics needs to inspect
BIOS to detect such low-level infections.
• Logs of when the system was powered on or off, which can provide timestamps
relevant to the investigation. Failed or irregular boot attempts can indicate
tampering or attempts to boot from unauthorized media (e.g., USB drives or
external hard drives).
• The CMOS battery on the motherboard is responsible for maintaining the
system clock and BIOS settings, even when the computer is turned off.
Investigators rely on system timestamps for evidence gathering. CMOS
maintains system time, and analyzing it helps ensure that timestamps are
accurate and have not been tampered with.
• CMOS stores the configuration settings of BIOS. Investigators may examine the
CMOS contents to detect any unauthorized changes in BIOS settings, such as
altered boot sequences, overclocking settings, or disabled security features.
Hard Drive
• A computer hard drive is a physical data storage device that stores
digital information. Hard drives are used to store both operating
systems and user files, such as photos, music, documents, and videos.
• Most desktop computers use traditional spinning hard disk drives
(HDDs), which are made up of spinning disks with magnetic coatings
and write/read heads that access the data.
• However, some computers now use solid state drives (SSDs) which
are non-mechanical devices that use flash memory to store data. SSDs
provide faster data transfer rates than HDDs while also being more
reliable and energy efficient.
HDD SSD
1. HDD is an abbreviation of Hard Disk
Drive. 1. SSD is an abbreviation of Solid State Drive.
2. The time for reading and writing the 2. The time for reading and writing the data in
data in HDD is longer. SSD is shorter.
3. There is a higher latency in HDDs. 3. There is a lower latency in SSDs.
4. Whereas, Hard Disk Drives supports 4. Solid State Drives supports the more
fewer operations. operations of input/output per second.

5. Because the SSDs do not have a rotating disk

5. The weight of HDDs is heavy. and motor, the weight of these storage devices
is light.

6. In the HDDs, the transfer of data is 6. In the SSDs, the transfer of data is not
sequential. sequential.
7. Due to the mechanical movements,
HDDs produce noise. 7. This storage device does not produce noise.
HDD SSD
8. The size of the HDD devices is larger. 8. The size of the SSD is more compact.

9. As compared to Hard Disk Drives, Solid State Drives are

9. The devices of Hard Disk Drives are cheaper.
more expensive.

10. In HDDs, magnets can remove the data. 10. SSDs are safe from the magnetic effect.

11. HDD devices generate more heat because of the 11. SDDs generates little heat because there is no moving
mechanical part. part included.

12. HDDs require more power to keep all the parts

moving. 12. It consumes less power than the HDDs.

13. The average boot-up time of OS is 30 to 40

seconds. 13. The average boot-up time of OS is 10 to 13 seconds.

14. The file opening speed of SSD is 30% faster than the
14. The file opening speed of HDDs is slightly slower. HDD.

15. Due to the spinning of platters may results in

vibration. 15. As there are no moving parts, so there is no vibration.
Disk Geometry Optical Media
• The Optical memory is an electronic storage medium that uses a laser
beam to store and retrieve digital (binary) data
• Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), Compact Disk (CD) and Blu-Ray Disk are
the examples of optical storage device.
• An optical-disk storage system consists of a rotating disk, which is
coated. With a thin metal or any other material that is highly
reflective. laser beam technology is used for recording/reading data
on a disk.
 Feature CD (Compact Disc) DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) Blu-Ray Disc
4.7 GB (single-layer), 8.5 GB 25 GB (single-layer), 50 GB (dual-
Storage Capacity 700 MB
(dual-layer) layer), up to 128 GB (multi-layer)
1-3 layers (single, dual, or triple-
Data Layer 1 layer 1-2 layers (single or dual layer)
layer)
Laser Wavelength 780 nm (infrared) 650 nm (red) 405 nm (blue-violet)
Audio storage, small data Video storage (standard High-definition video storage,
Use
storage definition), software distribution large data storage
Data Transfer Rate Up to 1.4 MB/s Up to 11 MB/s Up to 36 MB/s
Not applicable (mainly for
Video Resolution Up to 480p (standard definition) Up to 1080p (HD), 4K (Ultra HD)
audio)
Physical Size 120 mm diameter 120 mm diameter 120 mm diameter
Cost Cheapest per disc Moderate cost Most expensive per disc
Better scratch resistance than Most scratch resistant with
Durability Susceptible to scratches
CD additional protective layers

DVD and Blu-Ray players, Blu-Ray players, backward-

Compatibility CD drives and players
backward-compatible with CDs compatible with DVDs and CDs

Audio albums, software High-definition movies, data

Usage Examples Movies, video games, software
installation backup, PlayStation 3/4/5 games
 Portable flash Storage: Pen Drive
and
FeatureSD card Pen Drive SD Card (Secure Digital Card)
A small memory card used primarily in
Definition A portable USB flash drive used for data cameras, smartphones, and other
storage and transfer. portable devices.
Ranges from 2 GB to 1 TB or more,
Storage Capacity Typically ranges from 4 GB to 1 TB or depending on the type (Standard SD,
more. SDHC, SDXC).
Very small card, available in Standard,
Form Factor Compact device with a USB connector. Mini, and Micro sizes.
Data transfer, backup, and portable
Primary Use storage for PCs, laptops, and other USB- Storage for cameras, smartphones,
enabled devices. tablets, and other portable devices.
Typically robust, but can be vulnerable to
Durable, but can be damaged if
Durability physical damage, especially microSD
exposed to extreme conditions.
cards.
Depends on the USB version (USB 2.0 is Speeds vary by type (Class 2 to Class 10,
slower than 3.0 or 3.1). Speeds range UHS-I, UHS-II), with transfer speeds from 2
Speed from 10 MB/s to 500 MB/s or more for MB/s to 300 MB/s or more for high-end
high-speed versions. cards.
 Feature Pen Drive SD Card (Secure Digital Card)

Portability Small and easily portable, often with Extremely portable due to its tiny size,
keychain designs. especially MicroSD cards.

Affordable; price varies depending on Typically cheaper per GB for standard SD

Cost storage capacity and USB version. cards; high-speed and large-capacity cards
can be more expensive.
Can be rewritten and reused multiple Can be rewritten and reused multiple times,
Reusability
times. like pen drives.

Compatible with almost all devices with a Compatible with cameras, smartphones,
Compatibility USB port (PCs, TVs, printers, etc.). tablets, and devices with SD card slots or
adapters.

Data Retention Long data retention when unplugged, Long data retention, also about 10-20 years
around 10-20 years. if stored properly.

Some pen drives come with encryption Some SD cards offer built-in write
Security Features protection switches and encryption
or password protection features.
capabilities.

Storing and transferring files, documents, Storing photos, videos, apps, and other
Popular Applications media, and backups between computers. data in mobile devices and cameras.
Software
• the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a
computer what to do.
• There are 2 types of software: System Software and application software
• Operating System
• windows
• Unix/Linux and its distribution
• iOS
• BIOS
• Files and File System, FAT32, NTFS, Unix File system, Mac File System
• Concepts of bit, byte, Binary.
Operating system
• An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a
computer user and computer hardware. An operating
system is a software which performs all the basic tasks
like file management, memory management, process
management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and
printers.
• Eg: Windows, Linux, MacOS, iOS, Android
Operating System Functions
• Process Management
• I/O Device Management
• File Management
• Network Management
• Main Memory Management
• Secondary Storage Management
• Security Management
• Command Interpreter System
• Control over system performance
• Job Accounting
• Error Detection and Correction
• Coordination between other software and users
• Many more other important tasks
Four Main Types of OS
• Single-User, Single-Tasking Operating Systems − These operating systems allow only
one user to work on the computer at a time, and they can handle only one task or
program at a time. Examples include early versions of MS-DOS.
• Single-User, Multi-Tasking Operating Systems − These operating systems allow one
user to run multiple programs or tasks simultaneously. The operating system switches
between tasks quickly, giving the illusion of running multiple programs at once.
Examples include modern versions of Windows, macOS, and Linux.
• Multi-User Operating Systems − These operating systems allow multiple users to work
on the same computer simultaneously. Each user can have their own user account and
run their own programs independently. Examples include UNIX-based systems like
Linux and macOS, as well as server versions of Windows.
• Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS) − These operating systems are designed to
process data and respond to events in real-time, with strict deadlines for completing
tasks. They are used in applications where timing is critical, such as controlling
industrial machinery, automotive systems, and aerospace applications. Examples
include QNX and VxWorks.
Windows OS
• Windows is a Graphical User Interface (As apposed to command line
interface) developed by Microsoft. It allows users to view and store
files, run the software, play games, watch videos, and provides a way
to connect to the internet.
• It supports multi tasking. Users can monitor and manage running
applications, processes, and system performance through the Task
Manager.
• Features
• User Account Control (UAC): UAC helps prevent unauthorized changes to the
system by prompting for permission or administrator credentials.
• Windows Defender: Built-in antivirus and antimalware software that provides
real-time protection against threats.
• BitLocker Drive Encryption: Encrypts entire drives, safeguarding data from
unauthorized access.
• System Restore: Allows users to revert the system to a previous state in case
of issues, helping maintain system stability.
• Windows Backup and Restore: Provides options for backing up files and
system images to protect against data loss.
Windows File systems
• A file system is a method an operating system uses to store, organize,
and manage files and directories on a storage device.
• Windows file system include: NTFS and FAT32