CHAPTER

TWO
SCIENTIFIC
BY DR HASNUN NITA ISMAIL
METHODS
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES, UITM PERAK BRANCH, TAPAH CAMPUS.
 CHAPTER 2:
SCIENTIFIC METHODS

• Discovery based science (Inductive method)

• The hypothetico-deductive method (deductive method)
• Steps of scientific method
• Experimental analysis
 Variables (Dependent, Independent)
 Experimental and control group
 Introduction to data analysis methods (Quantitative and
Qualitative)
LESSON OUTCOMES (WEEK 3)

By the end of this lesson, you

should be able to:

• Design a study to test a

given hypothesis, using the
procedure and terminology
of the scientific method.
INTRODUCTION ON SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Definition:
Science: comes from a Latin language means ‘to know’
Biological science: is a subset of science which concerns on the ‘knowledge of living
organisms’
The best tool in the process of science is an ‘inquisitive mind’ – develop inquiry
Inquiry : arises from our observation on surrounding, or nature, or processes that
happen around us.
: raises questions.
: motivates a search for information and explanation behind the specific
questions.
Example:
During the voyage of Charles Darwin to Galapagos Island in 1831, he observed a high
biodiversity of species in the island. His observation raised an inquiry to seek for
information on how the species were adapted to their isolated environment.
ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES

• The work of Charles Darwin is a classical

example in the process of science
• He observed and showed full curiosity of
everything he found during the voyage
• He wrote and collected samples of species for
evidence to support his explanation
• The process to gather information and
explaining the answer of his questions took
almost a century before his idea been
accepted worldwide.
INTRODUCTION ON SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The story of Charles Darwin demonstrate an example to the process of
scientific inquiry – the journey to search the answer for specific questions.
The process of scientific inquiry can be divided into 2 different types:

1. Natural/Discovery Science
2. Hypothesis-based Science

In our syllabus, the above processes involve a series of steps that are used to
investigate the research questions.
The series of steps is called ‘Scientific Method’:
• is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge either from experience
(discovery science) or experimentation (hypothesis-based science).
 COMPARISON OF THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE
Natural/Discovery based science Hypothesis based science

Mostly about describing nature A scientific hypothesis leads to predictions that

can be tested by observation or experimentation
Describes natural structure and processes as
accurately as possible through careful observation A tentative answer, educated guess or trial
and analysis of data. explanation to a certain question

Verifiable observation and measurements are Perform experimentation using a scientific

from the large volume of data collection method

Conclusions based on a type of logic called

inductive reasoning: Conclusions based on logic flows from general to
Begin with specific observations → draw specific called deductive reasoning
conclusions or discover a general principle. (Have Start with supplied information (premises) → draw
weakness : conclusions generalized the facts to all conclusions on the basis of the information
possible examples)
 EXAMPLE:
Induction Deduction
a) Sparrows have wings, can fly and are birds. a) All birds have wings.
b) Robins, eagles, pigeons, and hawks have b) Sparrows are birds.
wings, can fly and are birds. ∴ Sparrows have wings.
∴ All birds have wings and can fly.
//conclusion not valid : kiwi, penguin in New
Zealand have no functional wings

a) Mercury is a planet that revolves around the a) All planets revolve around the sun.
sun. b) Earth is a planet.
b) Earth is a planet that revolves around the ∴ Earth revolve around the sun.
sun.
c) Mars is a planet that revolves around the
sun.
∴ All planets revolve around the sun.
 Discovery/Natural Science Hypothesis-based Science

• Is the process of • Experimentation is a must

gathering a large volume to gather experimental
SUMMARY of data from observing data
world around us • Lab-scale with specific
• Made many major objectives
contributions • Dependent largely on a
• Little dependence on a scientific method
scientific method • Ex: laboratory experiments
• Ex: the works of Charles
Darwin, Jane Goodall
HYPOTHESIS-BASED SCIENCE
Include a series of steps to investigate the
research questions
(Scientific Method)
THE FLOW OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 Terminology..

1. OBSERVATION : What is seen/what is feel from

surrounding or events
2. QUESTION : Statement arises from inquisitive mind
3. HYPOTHESIS : An explanation on trial to answer the
question based on educated guess
4. PREDICTION : A forecast about what may happen
5. EXPERIMENT : A fair test driven by a hypothesis
6. CONCLUSION : An inference based on evidence derived
from experimentation
The Scientific Method

FORMULATE
OBSERVATION QUESTION
HYPOTHESIS

COLLECT & ANALYZE DESIGN & CONDUCTING

RESULTS EXPERIMENT

COMMUNICATING
CONCLUSION
THE RESULT
 Steps of the Scientific
Method
1. Observation:
Make observations and research your topic of
interest.

Example: The boy observed that the grasses’ grow

bigger and bigger over the time
 Steps of the Scientific
Method
2. Question:
Develop a question or problem from the
observation.

Example: What is the reason that made the

grasses grow over the time?
or
What are the factors that influence the
growth of in the grasses?
 Steps of the Scientific
Method
3. Formulate a Hypothesis
Predict a possible answer to the problem or question.
A weak statement, invalid and still can be challenged!
Examples: The grasses grow in the presence of sunlight
The grasses grow with the presence of ground
water
❖ It is important to note that a hypothesis must be testable.
❖ There are 2 types of hypothesis;
▪ Null hypothesis: stated no effect between variables
▪ Alternative hypothesis: stated an effect between variables
Characteristics of a
good hypothesis
1. It is reasonably consistent with well-
established facts.
2. It generates predictions that can be
tested (whether the results are
positive or negative)
3. Tests results should be repeatable by
independent observers.
4. It is falsifiable, which means it can be
proven false.
 Steps of the Scientific
Method
3. Prediction
A statement generates from the hypothesis (usually from
alternative hypothesis)
Consists of ‘If…then…’ statement which helps to the design of
experiment.
Reflects the variables for the experiment
Reflects the outcomes of the experiment

Example:
• If in the absence of light, then the grasses will not grow
over the time.
• If there is no groundwater, then the grasses will not grow
over the time.
 Steps of the Scientific
Method
4. Design and conducting experiment:
❖ It is important to determine the list of materials in use and
methodology.
❖ Determine the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
❖ Determine the variables of experiment: independent, dependent
and control variables
❖ Samples of specimen must be picked at random, typical and in
replicates (preferable 3 replicates – ACCURACY)
❖ A well-designed experiment typically includes both of control
group and experimental group and must be as free as possible
from bias.
 Steps of the Scientific
Method
5. Collect and Analyze Results:
❖ The results are where you report what
happened in the experiment.
❖ That includes detailing
DATA
all observations and data made during
your experiment. QUANTITATIVE
❖ Modify the procedure if needed.
❖ Confirm the results by retesting.
QUALITATIVE
❖ Include tables, graphs, and photographs.
❖ Analyze your data results using statistical
analysis – t-test, ANOVA, F test etc..
 Steps of the Scientific
Method
6. Conclusion:
❖ Include a statement that accepts or rejects the hypothesis.
❖ Make recommendations for further study and possible
improvements to the procedure.
Example of conclusion if your hypothesis is accepted:
Light is required in the growth of grasses.
Example of conclusion if your hypothesis is not accepted:
Light is not a requirement in the growth of grasses.
Suggest possible factors required for the growth of grasses as
future recommendation and improvement.
 Steps of the Scientific
Method
7. Communicating the results:
❖ Be prepared to present the project to an
audience.
❖ Expect questions from the audience.
 REPORTING

❖ Present report based on analyzed data

and results.
❖ Report must contain introduction, literature
review, description of methods, results,
discussion and conclusion, references.
❖ Publish findings in scientific journals or
present to audience.
❖ Get comments and suggestions for improving
the report.
 Theory in science
❖ A description of the world that covers a relatively
large number of phenomenal and has met many
observational and experimental tests
(highly successful hypothesis)
❖ Broader in scope than a hypothesis
❖ General and can lead to a new testable hypothesis
❖ Supported by a large body of evidence in
comparison to a hypothesis – valid statement
❖ Example: Theory of Relativity, Theory of Natural
Selection
 Brainstorming Questions

Using the following hypothesis:

“The grasses grow with the presence of ground
water”,

1. develop the prediction statement.

2. identify the (i) control group and (ii) experimental
group of this experiment.
3. identify the (i) dependent, (ii) independent and (iii)
control variables.
4. If the results support the hypothesis, what you can
conclude from this study?
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Additional Questions to Try
❖ Test weather route A or route B is the faster way to get
from your home to your school.
❖ Test whether acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen
(Advil) helps faster with your headaches.
❖ If you are 21 or older, test whether Nescafe or
Starbucks coffee gives you faster heart beat per
minute.
❖ Test if you run faster in the morning compared to the
afternoon.
❖ Test if you weight is lower in the morning compared to
the afternoon