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INTRODUCTI
 Proposition: ON
A proposition is a statement that is either true or
false, but
not both.

 Statements are declarative sentences.

 Propositional Logic:
The area of logic that deals with propositions.

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 ⚫ “Elephants are bigger than
mice.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a ye
proposition? s
What is the truth tru
value of the e
proposition?

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NEGATION (Unary
Operator)
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p,
denoted by ¬p, is the statement “It is not the
case that p.”
 The proposition ¬p is read as “not p.”
 Examples
⚫ p:Today is Friday.
⚫ ¬p: Today is not
Friday. or
It is not Friday
today. to display
 Truth the
between tables arevalue of
truth relationships
used
propositions. 4
 ⚫ “520 <
111”
Is this a ye
statement? s
Is this a ye
proposition? s
What is the truth fals
value of the e
proposition?

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 ⚫ “y >
5”
Is this a ye
statement? s
Is this a n
proposition? o
Its truth value
depends on the value
of y, but this value is
not specified.
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 ⚫ “What time is
it?”

Is this a statement?
no
Is this a n
proposition? o
A proposition has
to be a
statement.

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 Truth
table:
The Truth Table for the
Negation of a
Proposition.
p ¬p
T F
F T

 Logical are used to

propositions
operators form new two or
propositions.
from The logical operators
moreexisting
are also called
connectives. 8
LOGICAL OPERATORS
(CONNECTIVES)
 Conjunction (AND
)
 Disjunction (OR)
 Exclusive (XOR)
or (if – then)
 Implication (if and only
 Bicondition if)
al

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CONJUNCTION: (Binary
Operator)
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of
p and q, denoted by pΛq, is the proposition “p
and q” which is true when both p and q are true
and is false otherwise.

Examples
p:“Today is Friday.”
q:“It is raining today.”
p Λ q: “Today is Friday and it is raining
today”.

The proposition is true on rainy Fridays. 10

 Truth
table :
The Truth Table
for the
Conjunction of
Two
Propositions.
p pΛq
q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 DISJUNCTION: (Binary Operator)
Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of
p and q, denoted by p ν q, is the proposition “p
or q” which is false when both p and q are false
and is true otherwise.

⚫ Note:
inclusive or : The disjunction is true when at
least one of the two propositions is true.
⚫ E.g. “Students who have taken
calculus or computer science can
take this class.”

exclusive or : The disjunction is true only

when one of The proposition is true.
⚫ E.g. “Ice cream or pudding will be served 12
 Truth
table :
The Truth Table The Truth Table for
for the the Exclusive Or
Disjunction of (XOR) of Two
Two Propositions.
Propositions. p pq
p pνq q
q T T F
T T T T F T
T F T F T T
F T T F F F
F F F

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 CONDITIONAL STATEMENT:
Let p and q be propositions. The conditional
statement p → q, is the proposition “if p, then q”
which is false when p is true and q is false, and true
otherwise.

p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or

premise) and q is called the conclusion (or
consequence).

 Example: “If I am elected,

elected, then I will
lower taxes. T lower
T | T taxes.” p
→ q not elected, lower taxes. F T |T
not elected, not lower F F |T
taxes.
elected, not lower taxes. T F |F
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Example:
Let p be the statement “Maria learns discrete
mathematics.” and q the statement “Maria will
find a good job.” Express the statement p → q as
a statement in English.
1. “If Marialearns discrete
find a
mathematics, goodthen
job. she will
2. “Mariawill find a good job if she learns
mathematics.”
discrete
3. “For Maria to get a good job, it is
sufficient for her to learn discrete
mathematics.”
4. “Maria will find a good job unless
she does not learn discrete
mathematics.” 15
⚫ If p then q
⚫ p implies q
⚫ q if p
⚫ q whenever p
⚫ p is sufficient
for q
⚫ q is necessary
for p
⚫ p only if q

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Other conditional
statements:
⚫ Converse of p → q : q → p
⚫ Contrapositive of p → q : ¬ q → ¬ p
⚫ Inverse of p → q : ¬ p → ¬ q

 The statement and its contrapositive are

equivalent.

 Converse and inverse of a statement are

equivalent

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BICONDITIONAL STATEMENT:
Let p and q be propositions. The
biconditional statement
p q is the proposition “p if and only if q”
which is true when p and q have the same
truth values, and is false otherwise.

 p q has the same truth value as (p → q) Λ (q

→ p)

Example:
⚫ Let p be the statement “You can
take the flight”
and let q be the statement “You buy a
ticket.” 18
 The Truth fo the
Table r q.
Biconditional
p
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
“ p is necessary and sufficient
for q” “If p then q and
conversely”

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 Connectives can beuse to up complicated
compound d involving
build any number
propositions
propositional of
variables.
trut tabl of the
Example:Construct h e compound
the (p ν ¬q) → (p
proposition Λ q)
The Truth Table of (p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q).
p ¬q p ν ¬q pΛq (p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q)
q
T F T T T
T T T F F
T F F F F T
F T T F F
T
F F 20
PRECEDENCE OF LOGICAL
OPERATORS
 Parentheses are used to specify the order in which logical
operators in a compound proposition are to be applied.
 To reduce the number of parentheses, the precedence
order is defined for logical operators.

Precedence of Logical Operators.

Operator Precedence

¬ 1
Λ 2
ν 3
→ 4
5

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TRANSLATING ENGLISH
SENTENCES
Example: How can this English sentence be
translated into a logical expression?
“You cannot ride the roller coaster if you
are under 4
feet tall unless you are older than 16 years
old.”

p: You can ride the roller coaster.

q: You are under 4 feet tall.
r: You are older than 16 years old.
(q Λ ¬ r) → ¬p
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Example: How can this English sentence be
translated into a logical expression?
“You can access the Internet from
campus only if you are a computer science
major or you are not a freshman.”

p: You can access the Internet from

campus.
q: You are a computer science major.
r: You are a freshman.

p → (q ν ¬r)

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LOGIC PUZZLES
You visit an island where there are two kinds of
inhabitants, knights, who always tell the truth, and
knaves, who always lie. You encounter two people A
and B. A says “ B is a knight” and B says “ the two
of us are opposite types”. What are A and B?

Let p: A is a
knight
q: B is a knight

Suppose p is
true,
A’s statement
that B is a
knight is true. 24
TAUTOLOGY:
A compound proposition that is always
true, no matter what the truth values of the
propositions that occurs in it, is called a
tautology.
CONTRADICTION:
A compound proposition that is always
false is called a contradiction.
CONTINGENCY:
A compound proposition that is neither a
tautology or a contradiction is called a25
Examples of a Tautology and a
Contradiction.
p ¬p p ν ¬p p Λ ¬p

T F T F
F T T F

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⚫ The compound propositions p and q are called
logically equivalent if p q is a tautology.
Notation p ≡ q

⚫ Example: Show that ¬p ν q and p → q are

logically equivalent.

Truth Tables for ¬p ν q and p → q .

p q ¬p ¬p ν q p→q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

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Logical Equivalences

Law Name
p Fp Identity laws
p Tp
p TT Domination laws
p FF
p p p Idempotent laws
p p p
( p)  p Double-negation law
Law Name
p q q p Commutati
p q q p ve laws
(p  q)  r  p  (q  r) Associative
(p  q)  r  p  (q  r) laws
(p  q)  (p  r)  p  (q  r) Distributive
(p  q)  (p  r)  p  (q  r) laws
(p  q)   p   q De Morgan’s
(p  q)   p   q laws
p  (p  q)  p Absorption laws
p  (p  q)  p
Some useful
logical
Equivalences
p  p 
T p  p
F
p →q 
p  q
⚫ Example: Show that ¬(p → q ) and p Λ ¬q are logically
equivalent. Solution:
¬(p → q ) ≡ ¬(¬p ν q)
≡ ¬(¬p) Λ De Morgan’s law
¬q Double negation
≡ p Λ ¬q law
⚫ Example: Show that (p Λ q) → (p ν q) is a tautology.
Solution: To show that this statement is a tautology, we will
use logical equivalences to demonstrate that it is logically
equivalent to T.
(p Λ q) → (p ν q)≡ ≡
(¬¬(p q) νν(p
p νΛ¬q) (pν q) De Morgan’s law
ν q) Associative and
≡ (¬ p ν p) ν (¬ q Commutative
ν
≡T q)ν law
T
≡T
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Prove Absorption
Laws
p  (p  q) 
p p  (p  q)
 p Proof
p  (p  q)  (p  T)  (p 
q)
 p  (T  q)
p T
p