UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

SCIENCE . TECHNOLOGY . HUMANITIES AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

FST459-FOOD ENGINEERING/
Chapter 6- Heat Transfer
Dr. Mohammad Zarei
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
Usaha, Takwa, Mulia
Universiti Teknologi Mara
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF FOODS

Specific heat (cp): an essential part of the thermal

analysis of food processing or of the equipment used in
heating or cooling of foods. With food materials, this
property is a function of the various components that
constitute a food, its moisture content, temperature,
and pressure.

In Food: The specific heat of a food increases as the

product moisture content increases.
 Specific Heat- Defintion
Specific Heat (Cp):

Specific heat is the quantity of heat that is gained or lost by a unit

mass of product to accomplish a unit change in temperature,
without a change in state:

where Q is heat gained or lost (kJ), m is mass (kg), ΔT is

temperature change in the material (°C), and cp is specifi c heat
(kJ/[kg °C]).
Specific Heat
Specific Heat
Specific Heat
Specific Heat
 Thermal Conductivity- Definition
Thermal Conductivity (k):

The thermal conductivity of a food is an important property used

in calculations involving rate of heat transfer. In quantitative
terms, this property gives the amount of heat that will be
conducted per unit time through a unit thickness of the material
if a unit temperature gradient exists across that thickness.

In SI units, thermal conductivity is:

 Thermal Conductivity
There is wide variability in the magnitude of thermal conductivity
values for commonly encountered materials. For example:

■ Metals: 50 - 400 W/(m̊ C)

■ Alloys: 10 -120 W/(m̊ C)
■ Water: 0.597 W/(m̊ C) (at 20̊ C)
■ Air: 0.0251 W/(mC) (at 20C)
■ Insulating materials: 0.035 0.173 W/(mC)

Most high-moisture foods have thermal conductivity values closer to

that of water. On the other hand, the thermal conductivity of dried,
porous foods is influenced by the presence of air with its low value.
 Thermal Diffusivity
Thermal Diffusivity (α):

Thermal diffusivity, a ratio involving thermal conductivity, density,

and specific heat, is given as,

The units of thermal diffusivity are

This value describes how quickly a material reacts to a change in

temperature. In order to predict cooling processes or to simulate
temperature fields, the thermal diffusivity must be known; it is a requisite
for solving the Fourier Differential Equation for unsteady heat conduction.
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
As noted previously, heat energy is simply the sensible and
latent forms of internal energy. Recall that the heat content of
an object such as a tomato is determined by its mass, specific
heat, and temperature. The equation for calculating heat content
is

where m is mass (kg), cp is specific heat at constant pressure

(kJ/[kg K]), and ΔT is the temperature difference between the
object and a reference temperature (°C).
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
In order to design the sterilization equipment, we need to know
how much heat is necessary to raise the temperature of tomato
juice from the initial to the final sterilization temperature using
above Equation. Furthermore, we need to know the rate at
which heat will transfer from steam into the juice first passing
through the walls of the sterilizer. Therefore, our concerns in
heating calculations are twofold: the quantity of heat
transferred, Q, expressed in the units of joule (J); and the rate of
heat transfer, q, expressed as joule/s (J/s) or watt (W).

Three common modes of heat transfer—conduction,

convection, and radiation
 CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which the transfer of energy takes place
at a molecular level. There are two commonly accepted theories that describe
conductive heat transfer.

According to First theory, as molecules of a solid material attain additional thermal

energy, they become more energetic and vibrate with increased amplitude of
vibration while confined in their lattice. These vibrations are transmitted from one
molecule to another without actual translatory motion of the molecules. Heat is thus
conducted from regions of higher temperature to those at lower temperature.

The second theory states that conduction occurs at a molecular level due to the drift
of free electrons. These free electrons are prevalent in metals, and they carry
thermal and electrical energy. For this reason, good conductors of electricity such as
silver and copper are also good conductors of thermal energy. Note that in
conductive mode, there is no physical movement of the object undergoing heat
transfer. Conduction is the common mode of heat transfer in heating/cooling of
opaque solid materials.
 CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER- Videos Links

• Heat Transfer – Conduction

• Thermal Conduction
 CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER
From everyday experience, we know that on a hot day, heat
transfer from the outside to the inside through the wall of a
room (Fig) depends on the surface area of the wall (a wall with
larger surface area will conduct more heat), the thermal
properties of construction materials (steel will conduct more
heat than brick), wall thickness (more heat transfer through a
thin wall than thick), and temperature difference (more heat
transfer will occur when the outside temperature is much hotter
than the inside room temperature). In other words, the rate of
heat transfer through the wall may be expressed as:
CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER
 CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER B
Or

or, by inserting a constant of proportionality,

where qx is the rate of heat flow in the direction of heat transfer by conduction (W); k
is thermal conductivity (W/[m °C]); A is area (normal to the direction of heat transfer)
through which heat flows (m 2 ); T is temperature (°C); and x is length (m), a variable.

Above Equation is also called the Fourier’s law for heat conduction, after Joseph
Fourier, a French mathematical physicist. According to the second law of
thermodynamics, heat will always conduct from higher temperature to lower
temperature. As shown in Figure 4.12 , the gradient dT/dx is negative, because
temperature decreases with increasing values of x. Therefore, in Equation (4.17), a
negative sign is used to obtain a positive value for heat flow in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER
 Example
One face of a stainless-steel plate 1 cm thick is maintained at
110°C, and the other face is at 90°C. Assuming steady-state
conditions, calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit area
through the plate. The thermal conductivity of stainless steel
is 17 W/(m °C).

Given

Thickness of plate 1 cm 0.01 m

Temperature of one face 110°C
Temperature of other face 90°C
Thermal conductivity of stainless steel 17 W/(m °C )
 Example
Approach

For steady-state heat transfer in rectangular coordinates we will use

above Equation to compute rate of heat transfer.

1. From Equation

2. Rate of heat transfer per unit area is calculated to be

34,000 W. A positive sign is obtained for the heat transfer,
indicating that heat always flows “ downhill ” from 110°C to 90°C.
 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

Consider heat transfer from a heated flat plate, PQRS, exposed to a flowing fluid, as
shown in Figure . The surface temperature of the plate is Ts, and the temperature of
the fluid far away from the plate surface is T . Because of the viscous properties of the
fluid, a velocity profile is set up within the flowing fluid, with the fluid velocity
decreasing to zero at the solid surface. Overall, we see that the rate of heat transfer
from the solid surface to the flowing fluid is proportional to the surface area of solid,
A, in contact with the fluid, and the difference between the temperatures Ts and T . Or,
 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

• Heat Transfer – Convection

• Thermal conduction, convection, and radiation

 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER
The area is A (m2), and h is the convective heat-transfer
coefficient (sometimes called surface heat-transfer coefficient),
expressed as W/(m2°C). This equation is also called Newton’s
law of cooling.

Note that the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, is not a

property of the solid material. This coefficient, however,
depends on a number of properties of fluid (density, specific
heat, viscosity, thermal conductivity), the velocity of
fluid, geometry, and roughness of the surface of the solid
object in contact with the fluid. Table 4.1 gives some
approximate values of h. A high value of h reflects a high rate
of heat transfer. Forced convection offers a higher value of h
than free convection. For example, you feel cooler sitting in a
room with a fan blowing air than in a room with stagnant air.
CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER
 Example

The rate of heat transfer per unit area from a metal plate is 1000
W/m2 . The surface temperature of the plate is 120°C, and ambient
temperature is 20°C ( Fig. E4.4 ). Estimate the convective heat
transfer coefficient.
Example
 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
Radiation heat transfer occurs between two surfaces by the
emission and later absorption of electromagnetic waves (or
photons). In contrast to conduction and convection, radiation
requires no physical medium for its propagation-it can even
occur in a perfect vacuum, moving at the speed of light, as we
experience everyday solar radiation.

Liquids are strong absorbers of radiation. Gases are

transparent to radiation, except that some gases absorb radiation
of a particular wavelength (for example, ozone absorbs ultraviolet
radiation). Solids are opaque to thermal radiation. Therefore, in
problems involving thermal radiation with solid materials, such as
with solid foods, our analysis is concerned primarily with the
surface of the material. This is in contrast to microwave and
radio frequency radiation, where the wave penetration into a
solid object is significant.
 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
All objects at a temperature above 0 Absolute (-273.15 C)
emit thermal radiation. Thermal radiation emitted from an
object’s surface is proportional to the absolute temperature
raised to the fourth power and the surface characteristics.
More specifically, the rate of heat emission (or radiation) from
An object of a surface area A is expressed by the following
equation:

emissivity, which describes the extent to which a surface is

similar to
a blackbody. For a blackbody, the value of emissivity is 1. Table
A.3.3
gives values of emissivity for selected surfaces.
 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

• Heat Transfer - Thermal Radiation

• Heat Transfer - Radiation

RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
 Example

Calculate the rate of heat energy emitted by 100 m2 of a

polished iron sur-face (emissivity 0.06) as shown in Figure.
The temperature of the surface is 37°C.
STEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER
In problems involving heat transfer, we often deal with
steady state and unsteady state (or transient) conditions.
Steady-state conditions imply that time has no influence on
the temperature distribution within an object, although
temperature may be different at different
locations within the object. Under unsteady-state
conditions, the temperature changes with location and
time. For example, consider the wall of a refrigerated
warehouse as shown in Figure.

The inside wall temperature is maintained at 6°C using

refrigeration, while the outside wall temperature changes
throughout the day and night. Assume that for a few hours
of the day, the outside wall temperature is constant at
20°C, and during that time duration the rate of heat transfer
into the warehouse through the wall will be under steady-
state conditions. The temperature at any location inside the
wall cross-section (e.g., 14°C at location A) will remain
constant,
Conductive Heat Transfer in a Rectangular Slab
Consider a slab of constant cross-sectional area, as shown in Figure 4.15 . The
temperature, T 1, on side X is known. We will develop an equation to determine
temperature, T 2, on the opposite side Y and at any location inside the slab under
steady-state conditions. This problem is solved by first writing Fourier’s law,
Conductive Heat Transfer in a Rectangular Slab

To determine temperature, T, at any location, x, within the slab,

we may replace T2 and x2 with unknown T and distance
variable x, respectively, in Equation (4.28) and obtain,
 Conductive Heat Transfer in a Rectangular Slab

Thermal Resistance Concept

We noted that, according to Ohm’s Law, electrical current, I, is directly proportional

to the voltage difference, E V, and indirectly proportional to the electrical resistance
R E . Or,

If we rearrange the terms in Equation (4.27),

we obtain
Conductive Heat Transfer in a Rectangular Slab
• Intuition behind formula for thermal conductivi
ty
 Answer-Part B
• In solving problems involving conductive heat transfer in a rectangular slab using
this concept, we first obtain thermal resistance using Equation (4.33) and then
substitute it in Equation (4.32). The rates of heat transfer across the two surfaces
of a rectangular slab are thus obtained. This procedure is illustrated in Example
4.6. The advantage of using the thermal resistance concept will become clear
when we study conduction in multilayer walls. Moreover, the mathematical
computations will be much simpler compared with alternative procedures used
in solving these problems.
 Example

One face of a stainless-steel plate 1 cm thick is maintained at 110°C,

and the other face is at 90°C ( Fig. E4.3 ). Assuming steady-state
conditions, calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit area through
the plate. The thermal conductivity of stainless steel is 17 W/(m °C).

a. Redo above example using the

thermal resistance concept.

b. Determine the temperature at 0.5 cm

from the 110°C temperature
face.
 Answer-Part D

we will calculate the thermal resistance for the thickness of the slab
bounded by 110°C and the unknown temperature ( Fig. E4.6 ).
Since the steady-state heat transfer remains the same throughout
the slab, we will use the previously calculated value of q to
determine the unknown temperature using Equation (4.32).
 Solution

Part (a)

1. Using Equation (4.33), the thermal

resistance R t is
2. Using Equation (4.32), we
obtain rate of heat transfer as

Part (b)
3. Using Equation (4.33) calculate resistance R t1

4. Rearranging terms in Equation (4.32) to

determine the unknown temperature T

5. The temperature at the midplane is 100°C.

This temperature was expected, since the
thermal conductivity is constant, and the
temperature profi le in the steel slab is linear.
Conductive Heat Transfer through a
Tubular Pipe (Cylinder)
Consider a long, hollow cylinder of inner
radius ri, outer radius ro, and length L, as
shown in Figure. Let the inside wall
temperature be Ti and the outside wall
temperature be To. We want to calculate the
 Example
A 2 cm thick steel pipe (thermal conductivity 43 W/[m °C]) with 6 cm inside diameter is being
used to convey steam from a boiler to process equipment for a distance of 40 m. The inside pipe
surface temperature is 115°C, and the
outside pipe surface temperature is 90°C ( Fig.). Calculate the total heat loss to the surroundings
under steady-state conditions.
Given
Thickness of pipe 2 cm 0.02 m
Inside diameter 6 cm 0.06 m
Thermal conductivity k 43 W/(m °C)
Length L 40 m
Inside temperature Ti 115°C
Outside temperature To 90°C
Approach
We will determine the thermal resistance in
the cross-section of the pipe and then
use it to calculate the rate of heat transfer,
using Equation (4.40).
Example
 Heat Conduction in Multi-layered Systems

1. Composite Rectangular Wall (in Series)

We will now consider heat transfer through a composite wall made of several materials of
different thermal conductivities and thicknesses.
An example is a wall of a cold storage, constructed of different layers of materials of different
insulating properties. All materials are arranged in series in the direction of heat transfer, as
shown in Figure 4.17 . From Fourier’s law,

This may be rewritten as:

 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

or, using thermal resistance values for each layer, we can write
Equation as,
 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

• Steady State Heat Conduction - Multilayer rect

angular wall
 Example
Example. A cold storage wall (3 m × 6 m) is constructed of 15 cm thick concrete (ther-mal
conductivity 1.37 W/[m °C]). Insulation must be provided to maintain a heat transfer rate
through the wall at or below 500 W ( Fig. E4.8 ). If the thermal
conductivity of the insulation is 0.04 W/(m °C), compute the required thickness of the
insulation. The outside surface temperature of the wall is 38°C, and the inside wall
temperature is 5°C.
Example
Heat Conduction in Multilayered Systems

Composite Cylindrical Tube (in Series)

Next Figure shows a composite cylindrical tube made of two layers of materials, A
and B. An example is a steel pipe covered with a layer of insulating material. The rate
of heat transfer in this composite tube can be calculated as follows. In Section 4.4.2
we found that rate of heat transfer through a singlewall cylinder is
Composite Cylindrical Tube (in Series)
 Conductive Heat Transfer through a
Tubular Pipe (Cylinder)- VIDEO
• Steady State Heat Conduction - multilayered
pipe
 Example
• A stainless-steel pipe (thermal conductivity 17 W/[m °C]) is being used to convey
heated oil ( Fig. E4.9 ). The inside surface temperature is 130°C. The pipe is 2 cm thick
with an inside diameter of 8 cm.The pipe is insulated with 0.04 m thick insulation
(thermal conductivity 0.035 W/[m °C]). The outer insulation temperature is 25°C.
Calculate the temperature of the interface between steel and insulation, assume
steady-state conditions.
Example
Example
 Example
• A stainless-steel pipe (thermal conductivity 15 W/[mK]) is being used to transport heated oil
at 125°C ( Fig. E4.10 ). The inside temperature of the pipe is 120°C. The pipe has an inside
diameter of 5 cm and is 1 cm thick. Insulation is necessary to keep the heat loss from the oil
below 25 W/m length of the pipe. Due to space limitations, only 5 cm thick insulation can be
provided. The outside surface temperature of the insulation must be above 20°C (the dew
point temperature of surrounding air) to avoid condensation of water on the surface of
insulation. Calculate the thermal conductivity of insulation that will result in minimum heat
loss while avoiding water condensation on its surface.
Example
Example
 Nature of heat flow, conduction, convection
and radiation
1. Conduction:
It is process of transfer of heat from one object to another object without any
movement of that particular objects.

2. Convection:
The transfer of heat from one portion of fluid or gas to another portion through
the mixing among them
i. Natural convection:
This type of convection naturally happened due to the difference of density such
as hot fluid or gas will goes up and cooled fluid or gas will goes down.
ii. Forced convection
This type of convection will be happened due to the force that is given to the fluid
or gas by using fan, pump etc.

3. Radiation:
Hot object gives heat in the form of radiation towards all directions. Some of the
radiation energy will be absorbed or reflected.
Heat conduction (Conductive Heat Transfer)
Fourier law
The sharper slope of temperature during heat of transfer in the particular
object, the more heat resistant. The thermal conductivity of the object is
defined as quantity (Joule) of heat flow for per square area through 1 meter
thickness of the object and per unit difference in temperature (1oC) for one
particular unit of time (second)

q = kA ΔT/x

Where
q = rate of heat transfer
ΔT = the temperature difference
x = the thickness in meter
k = thermal conductivity of the object
A = cross section area measured perpendicularly to the direction
of the flow of heat
 Heat transfer by conduction through cylinder
and composite wall
6.2.2.1 Heat transfer by conduction through cylinder
Tube heat exchanger with
i. inner heat transfer coefficient hi (W m-2 K-1)
ii. outer heat transfer coefficient of ho (W m-2 K-1)
iii. thermal conductivity of the tube wall is k (W m -1 K-1).
iv. diameter of the tube is di (m); the inner radius is ri ( m)
v. thickness of the tube is x (m); the outer radius is r0 ( m), ro = ri + x
vi. length of the tube is L (m)
vii. temperatures of inner and outer surfaces are T 1 (0C) and T2 (0C), respectively
viii. temperature difference = T = T1 (0C) - T2 (0C),

1 = 1 + roln (ro/ri) + ro
U ho k r i hi
 Heat transfer by conduction through cylinder
and composite wall

U = overall heat transfer coefficient

Rate of heat transfer

q = UA T

Where;
A = cross section area measured perpendicularly to the direction of the
flow of heat
 Heat transfer by composite wall
Composite wall with
i. thermal conductivity of the walls are k1, k2, k3, ……… (W m-1 K-1).
ii. thickness of the walls are x1, x2, x3 , ….. (m);
iii.temperature difference between surface walls 1 and 2
T = T1 (0C) - T2 (0C),

1 = x1 + x2 + x3
U k1 k2 k3
 Heat transfer by composite wall

U = overall heat transfer coefficient

Rate of heat transfer

q = UA T

Where;
A = cross section area measured perpendicularly to the direction of the
flow of heat
 Heat transfer by convection, film heat transfer
coefficient and overall heat transfer coefficient

Convection-heat transfer is the transfer of energy by

the mass movement of groups of molecules

1. It is restricted to liquids and gases as mass molecular

movement cannot occur in solids

2. It cannot be mathematically predicted as easily as

can transfer by conduction or radiation and so its
study is based on experimental results rather than on
theory
 Heat transfer by convection, film heat transfer
coefficient and overall heat transfer coefficient

The heat passes through the surface, then through the various elements
of a composite slab and then it may pass through a further surface film
 q = AΔt / [1/hs1 + x1/k1 + x2/k2 + ….. + 1/hs2]
= UA Δt
where
1/U = 1/hs1 + x1/k1 + x2/k2 + ….. + 1/hs2
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
UA = overall conductivity
1/UA = overall resistant
hs1, hs2 = the surface heat transfer coefficients on either side of
the composite slab
x1, x2, … = the thicknesses of the layers making up the slab
k1, k2, … = the conductivities of layers of thickness x1, x2, …….
hs = the convection heat-transfer coefficient
 Problem for Practice
• Problem – composite walls; stainless steel panes

• Calculate the rate of heat transfer across two stainless steel

panes which are separated by 0.6 mm layer of air, as shown in
Figure 1 below. The thickness of each pane is 1.6 mm. The
heat transfer coefficient on one side of the pane at T1 = 30oC is
2.7 W m-2 K-1. The heat transfer coefficient on the second pane
at T2 = -22oC is 11.8 W m-2 K-1. Thermal conductivity of
stainless steel and air are 21 W m-1 K-1 and 0.04 W m-1 K-1,
respectively. Stainless steel
panes

ai
T r T2
1

Figure 1
 Problem for Practice
The width, height and thickness of the cold storage
concrete wall are 3 m, 6 m and 15 cm, respectively.
Thermal conductivity of the concrete wall is 1.37 Wm-
K . The temperatures of outer and inner wall
1 -1

surfaces are 38oC and 5oC, respectively. Insulation

must be provided to maintain a heat transfer rate
through the wall at or below 500 W. If the thermal
conductivity of the insulation is 0.04 Wm-1K-1,
calculate the required thickness of the insulation.
 Heat Equation and Application
1. There are many examples of natural convection in the food
industry
i. retorts which may be vertical or horizontal cylinders, are
exposed with or without insulation to colder ambient air

ii. food is placed inside a chiller or freezer store in which

circulation is not assisted by fans

iii. food is placed in ovens without fans and afterwards the

cooked material is removed to cool in air
 Example
2. Natural convection rates depend upon
i. the physical constant of the fluid;
a) density ()
b) viscosity (μ)
c) thermal conductivity (k)
d) specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)
e) coefficient of thermal expansion () which for gases = 1/T by Charles’ Law
ii. dimension of the system;
f) diameter (D)
g) length (L)
iii. temperature difference (Δt)
iv. gravitational acceleration g ( since it is density differences acted upon by gravity
that create circulation)
 Free (Natural) Convection
Free convection occurs because of density differences in fluids as
they come into contact with a heated surface ( Fig. 4.25 ). The
low density of fluid at a higher temperature causes buoyancy
forces, and as a result, heated fluid moves upward and colder
fluid takes its place. Pipe with a heated outside surface Air flow
around a pipe due to a natural convection

Empirical expressions useful in predicting convective heat-

transfer
coefficients are of the following form:
Free (Natural) Convection
Free (Natural) Convection
 Free (Natural) Convection

)=

A Grashof number is a ratio between the buoyancy forces and viscous

forces. Similar to the Reynolds number, the Grashof number is useful for

determining whether a fl ow over an object is laminar or turbulent. For

example, a Grashof number greater than for fluid flow over vertical plates

signifies a turbulent flow.

 Free (Natural) Convection

Introduction to Free Convection

Natural (Free) Convection heat transfer

 Natural Convection Equations
1. General equation for the natural convection
Nusselt number (Nu) = hcD/k=
= K (Pr) k (Gr)m (L/D)n
where;
hc = convection – heat –transfer coefficient
Prandtl number (Pr) = Cpμ/k
Grashof number (Gr) = D3 2 g  Δt/ μ2
The Nusselt and Biot numbers look similar;

i. Nusselt k and h both refer to the fluid

ii. Biot k is in the solid and h in the fluid

• In natural convection equations, the values of the physical constants of the fluid are
taken at the mean temperature between the surface and the bulk fluid.
 Natural Convection Equations
2. Vertical cylinders and planes,
such as vertical retorts and oven walls
Nu = 0.53 (Pr.Gr)0.25 for 104<Pr.Gr<109
Nu = 0.12 (Pr.Gr)0.33 for 109<Pr.Gr<1012

For air these equations can be approximated by

hc = 1.3 (Δt)0.25
L
hc = 1.8 (Δt)0.25
• These two equations are dimensional equations and are in standard
units (∆T in °C and L (or D) in metres and hc in J m-2 S-1 C-1). The
characteristic dimension to be used in the calculation of (Nu) and (Gr) in
these equations is the height of the plane or cylinder.
 Natural Convection Equations
3. Natural convections about Horizontal cylinders such as a steam pipe or sausage lying on a rack
Nu = 0.54 (Pr.Gr)0.25
for laminar flow in the range 103<Pr.Gr<109

Simplified equations can be employed in the case of air which is so often encountered in contact with hotter or
colder foods giving

hc = 1.31 (Δt)0.25
D

and for 109<Pr.Gr<1012

hc = 1.8 (Δt)0.33

3. Natural convection from horizontal planes, such as slabs of cake cooling, the corresponding cylinder equations
may be used, employing the length of the plane instead of the diameter of the cylinder whenever D occurs in Nu
and Gr

Values for Cp, k and μ are measured at the film temperature, which is midway between the surface temperature and
the temperature of the bulk liquid
 EXAMPLE. Heat loss from a cooking vessel

Calculate the rate of convection heat loss to ambient air from

the side walls of a cooking vessel in the form of a vertical
cylinder 0.9 m in diameter and 1.2 m high. The outside of the
vessel insulation, facing ambient air, is found to be at 49°C
and the air temperature is 17°C.
 Forced Convection
1. Forced-convection heat transfer is occurred when a fluid is forced
pass a solid body and heat is transferred between fluid and the
body

2. E.g in blast, ice-cream hardening rooms, agitated retorts foods are

heated or cooled by a surrounding fluid which is moved relative to
them by external means

3. Compared with natural convection;

i. The rate of heat transfer are higher than for natural
convection
ii. Influenced by circulation velocities and the Reynolds
number (natural convection – influenced by k & g)
 Forced Convection Equations
1. Heating and cooling inside tubes (pipe)
i. moderate temperature difference, reasonable long tube,
a. For laminar flow
Nu = 1.62 (Re Pr D/L)0.33

b. For turbulence flow,

Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Prn
where n = 0.4 for heating, n = 0.33 for cooling
when Re > 10,000, viscosity is measured at the mean film temperature and other physical properties
are measured at the mean bulk temperature of the fluid.

c. For more viscous liquids, such as oils and syrups

The surface heat transfer will be affected depending upon whether the fluid is heating or being
cooled (viscosity of fluid is considered)
 Forced Convection Equations
Nu = 0.027 (μ/μs)0.14 Re0.8 Pr0.33 for Re >10,000

μs is the viscosity of the fluid at the temperature of the tube surface

Since Pr varies little for gases, Pr can be taken as 0.75
Therefore the above equation can be simplified for gases
Nu = 0.02 Re0.8
i. the viscosity ratio is assumed to have no effect
ii. all quantities are evaluated at the bulk gas
temperature
For other factors constant, this becomes hc = k’ 0.8
 Forced Convection Equations
• Forced Convection

• Free and Forced Convection

 Example
Whole milk is cooled in the pipes of a tubular heat
exchanger from 300C to 100C, by water at 10C. The
pipe diameter is 5cm and the milk flow velocity is
1.0ms-1. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient for the
milk using physical properties;
density,  = 1030 kgm-3,
specific heat, c = 3.9 kJkg-1 K -1 and
thermal conductivity, k = 0.56 Wm-1K-1
Co-Current (parallel) Heat Exchanger
A Counter-Current Heat Exchanger
Co-Current and Counter-Current Heat Exchangers
Co-Current and Counter-Current Heat Exchangers
• Co-current vs counter current flow in a Plate H
eat Exchanger
 Forced Convection Equations
3. Heating or cooling outside tubes such as water chillers or chilling sausages

Nu = K Ren Prm
where
n and m vary with the Reynolds number

For gases and liquids at high or moderate Re;

Nu = 0.26 Re0.6 Pr0.3

For liquids at low Re, 1<Re<200

Nu = 0.86 Re0.43 Pr0.3

Fluid properties in these forced-convection equations are evaluated at the mean

film temperature which is the arithmetic mean temperature between the
temperature of the tube walls and the temperature of the bulk fluid
 Example: Heat transfer in water flowing over a
sausage
Water is flowing at 0.3 m s-1 across a 7.5 cm diameter sausage
at 74°C. If the bulk water temperature is 24° C, estimate the
heat-transfer coefficient.
 Example
• Calculate the surface-heat-transfer coefficient to a
vegetable puree which is flowing at an estimated 3 m
min-1 over a flat plate 0.9 m long by 0.6 m wide, if
steam is condensing on the other side of the plate
and maintaining the surface which is in contact with
the puree at 104oC. Assume that the properties of
the vegetable puree are, density 1040 kg m-3, specific
heat 3980 Jkg-1 oC-1, viscosity 0.002 Nsm-2, thermal
conductivity 0.52 Jm-1 s-1 oC-1
 Example: Surface heat transfer to vegetable puree

Calculate the surface heat transfer coefficient to a vegetable

puree, which is flowing at an estimated 3 m min-1 over a flat
plate 0.9 m long by 0.6 m wide. Steam is condensing on the
other side of the plate and maintaining the surface, which is
in contact with the puree, at 104°C. Assume that the
properties of the vegetable puree are, density 1040 kg m-3,
specific heat 3980 J kg-1 °C-1, viscosity 0.002 N s m-2,
thermal conductivity 0.52 J m-1 s-1 °C-1.
 Problem on heat transfer by convection – Nusselt’s Reynolds and
Prandtl’s numbers

Water is flowing at 0.12 ms-1 across a 8 cm sausage diameter at

75oC. If the bulk water temperature is 25oC estimate the heat-
transfer coefficient of water. Given;
specific heat capacity of water = 4.186 kJ kg-1
thermal conductivity of water = 0.64 J m-1 s-1 0C-1
viscosity of water = 5.6 x 10-4 N s m-2
density of water = 1000 kg m-3
Pr = cp/k Pr0.3 = 3.660.3 Nu = 0.26 Re0.6 Pr0.3
 Logarithmic Mean For Temperature Difference For
Co-current And Counter-current Flow
Parallel/co-current flow
tci tco
thi tho

Logarithmic Mean of Temperature Difference (LMTD)

Δtln = [(tci –thi) – (tco – tho)]

ln [(tci – thi)/tco – tho)]

Counter flow
tci tco

tho thi
Logarithmic Mean of Temperature Difference (LMTD)

Δtln = [(tci –tho) – (tco – thi)]

ln [(tci – tho)/tco – thi)]
q = heat exchanged between fluids
= UA Δt ln
A Co-Current (parallel) Heat Exchanger
A Counter-Current Heat Exchanger
Calculation Formula
 Example
• In a counterflow heat exchanger water is being chilled
by a sodium chloride brine. If the rate of flow of the
brine is 1.8 kg s-1 and that of the water is 1.05 kg s-1,
estimate the temperature to which the water is cooled
if the brine enters at -8oC and leaves at 10oC, and if the
water enters the exchanger at 32oC. If the area of the
heat transfer surface of this exchanger is found to be
55m2, what is the overall heat transfer coefficient?
Take the specific heats to be 3.38 and 4.18 kJ kg-1 oC-1
for the brine and the water respectively
 Problem on Heat Transfer By Convection – Tube
Water is flowing at 0.13ms-1 across a 7.5 cm diameter sausage at 74oC. If the bulk water temperature is
24oC estimate the heat-transfer coefficient

Answer
Mean film temperature = (74 + 24)/2 = 49oC
Properties of water at 49oC are;
Cp = 4.186 kJ kg-1
k = 0.64 J m-1 s-1 oC-1
 = 5.6 x 10-4 Nsm-2
 = 1000 kg m-3
 Re = (D/)
= (0.075 x 0.13 x 1000)/5.6 x 10-4
= 1.74 x 104
Re0.6 =(1.74 x 104)0.6
= 350
Problem on Heat Transfer By Convection – Tube
Pr = cp/k
= (4186 x 5.6 x 10-4 )/0.64
= 3.66
 Pr0.3 = 3.660.3
= 1.48
Nu = hcD/k
Nu = 0.26 Re0.6 Pr0.3
 hc = k/D x 0.26 Re0.6 Pr0.3
= (0.64/0.075) x 0.26 x 350 x 1.48
= 1149 J m-2 s-1 oC-1
Problem on Heat Transfer By Convection – Jacketed Kettle

• Sugar solution is being heated in a jacketed pan made

from stainless steel, 1.6 mm thick. Heat is supplied by
condensing steam at 200 kPa gauge in the jacket. The
surface transfer coefficients are, for condensing steam
and for the sugar solution are 12,000 and 3,000 Jm-2 s-1
oC-1 respectively, and the thermal conductivity of
stainless steel is 21 Jm-1s-1oC-1. Calculate the quantity
of steam being condensed per minute if the transfer
surface is 1.4 m2 and the temperature of the sugar
solution is 83oC. The saturation temperature of steam at
200 kPa gauge = 134oC and the latent heat = 2164 kJkg-1
Steam Jacketed Kettle
Braising Pan
 Problem on Heat Transfer By Convection – Vessel

• Calculate the rate of convection-heat loss to ambient

air from the side walls of a cooking vessel in the form
of a vertical cylinder 0.9m in diameter and 1.2m high.
The outside of the vessel insulation, facing ambient
air, is found to be at 49oC and the air temperature is
17oC
 Problem on Heat Transfer By Convection – Vessel

What would be the rate of heat loss from the cooking vessel of example #, if a
draught caused the air to move past the cooking vessel at a speed of 61 m min-1?

Answer
Assume the vessel is equivalent to a flat plate then
hc = 5.7 + 3.9 
= 5.7 + (3.9 x 61)/60
= 9.7 J m-2 s-1 oC-1
So with A =3.4 m2, t = 32oC
q = hc A t
= 9.7 x 3.4 x 32
= 1055 J s-1
 Radiation Between Two Bodies
1. The radiant energy transferred between 2 surfaces depends upon their
 temperatures
 geometric arrangement
 emissivities

2. For 2 parallel surfaces, facing each other, the net heat transferred from the
hotter to the cooler surface is given by
q = AC (T14- T24)
where
1/C = 1/1 + 1/2 – 1
1 = the emissivity of the surface at temperature T1
2 = the emissivity of the surface at temperature T2
 Radiation to A Small Body From Its Surroundings
1. In the case of a relatively small body in surroundings that are at a uniform temperature, the net exchange is given by the equation
q = A (T14 - T24) ….. (1)
where
 = the emissivity of the body
T1 = the absolute temperature of the body
T2 = the absolute temperature of the surrounding

2. This equation cover for many practical purpose in process engineering;

e.g: a loaf in an oven receiving radiation from the walls around it
a meat carcasses radiating heat to the walls of a freezing chamber

3. Radiant-heat transfer
q = hrA(t1 – t2) …. (2)
where
hr = the radiation-heat-transfer coefficient
t1 = the temperature of the body
t2 = the temperature of the surrounding
(T1 –T2) = (t1 + 273) – (t2 + 273)
= t1 – t 2
\ (2) = (1)
q = hrA(T1 – T2) = A (T14 - T24)
hr =   (T14 - T24)/(T1 – T2)
hr =   (T1+T2)(T12 + T22)
 Example
If Tm = (T1 + T2)/2

Therefore T1 + e = Tm and T2 – e = Tm
where;
2e = T1 –T2
T1 + T2 = 2Tm

and then
(T12 + T22) = Tm2 – 2eTm + e2 + Tm2 + 2eTm + e2
= 2Tm2 + 2e2
= 2Tm2 + (T1 – T2)2
\ hr =  (2Tm)[2Tm2 + (T1 – T2)2]
 Example
If T1 – T2 «T1 or T2
that is if the difference between the temperatures is small compared with the
numerical values of the absolute temperatures, therefore

hr =   4Tm3
and so

q =hr A T
q = ( x 5.73 x 10-8 x 4 x Tm3 ) x A T

q = 0.23  (Tm/100)3 A T
 Example
• Calculate the net heat transfer by radiation to a loaf of bread
in an oven at a uniform temperature of 177oC, if the emissivity
of the surface of the loaf is 0.85, using equation q = A (T14 -
T24) . Compare this results with that obtained by using
equation q = 0.23(Tm/100)3AT. The total surface area and
temperature of the loaf are respectively 0.0645m2 and 100oC
Thermal Properties of Fluids
TERIMA KASIH/ THANK YOU
www.uitm.edu.my

Usaha, Takwa, Mulia