Introduction to

Everyday
Science
Lecture 8:
Radioactivity
 Radioactivit
y
Radioactivity is a natural process in which certain atoms become stable by releasing
energy in the form of particles or waves. This occurs because some atomic nuclei are
unstable and seek a more balanced state. It was discovered in the late 19th century
by Henri Becquerel. The four common radioactive elements are Uranium, Radium,
Polonium, and Thorium.
• Types of radioactivity include:
• Gamma Decay (Photons having high energy are emitted)
• Beta Decay (Emission consists of Electrons)
• Alpha Decay (Emission consists of Helium nucleus)
 Types of Radioactivity:
Alpha Decay

Alpha decay happens when an unstable

nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is
made up of two protons and two neutrons.
This emission decreases the atomic number of
the original nucleus by two and the mass
number by four..
Beta Decay

• Beta decay occurs when an unstable

nucleus emits a beta particle, which can
be either an electron (β⁻ decay) or a
positron (β⁺ decay). During beta decay,
a neutron in the nucleus converts into a
proton (or vice versa), leading to a
change in atomic number while
maintaining the mass number.
Gamma Decay

• Gamma decay is the process in which

high-energy gamma rays are emitted
from an excited atomic nucleus.
Unlike alpha and beta decay, gamma
decay does not alter the atomic or
mass number of the nucleus, but it
decreases its energy state.
Characteristics: Alpha
Radiation
• Particle Type: Alpha radiation consists of alpha particles, which are essentially helium-4 nuclei (two
protons and two neutrons).
• Charge: Alpha particles have a positive charge.
• Mass: They are relatively heavy particles compared to beta and gamma radiation.
• Penetration Power: Alpha particles have low penetration power and can be stopped by a few
centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or even human skin.
• Ionization: Due to their large mass and charge, alpha particles cause significant ionization along
their path.
• Typical Source: Common sources of alpha radiation include heavy elements such as uranium and
radium
Beta Radiation

• Particle Type: Beta radiation consists of beta particles, which are high-speed electrons
(β⁻ decay) or positrons (β⁺ decay).
• Charge: Beta particles have a negative charge (β⁻) or positive charge (β⁺).
• Mass: Beta particles have much smaller masses compared to alpha particles.
• Penetration Power: Beta particles have higher penetration power than alpha particles and
can penetrate several millimeters of aluminum.
• Ionization: Beta particles cause moderate ionization along their path.
• Typical Source: Isotopes undergoing beta decay, such as carbon-14 and strontium-90, are
common sources of beta radiation
Gamma Radiation

• Particle Type: Gamma radiation consists of electromagnetic waves similar to X-rays but with higher
energy.
• Charge: Gamma rays are uncharged (neutral).
• Mass: They have no mass.
• Penetration Power: Gamma rays have very high penetration power and can penetrate thick layers of
materials, requiring dense shielding such as lead or concrete to attenuate them.
• Ionization: Gamma rays cause minimal ionization along their path, but they can indirectly ionize
atoms by knocking off electrons.
• Typical Source: Gamma radiation accompanies many nuclear reactions, such as alpha and beta
decay processes, and is emitted by radioactive isotopes such as cobalt-60 and iodine-131.
Half-Life
• The radioactive half-life is the time it
takes for half of the radioactive material in
a sample to decay into more stable forms.
Half-life is crucial in various applications,
including dating archaeological artifacts,
understanding radioactive decay
processes, and determining the duration of
medical treatments.
• Francium-223 has the shortest half-life of
all naturally occurring isotopes at 22
minutes while xenon-124 has the longest
half-life ever recorded in a laboratory
setting at 1 . 8 × 1 0 22 years.
Applications: Medicine

• Diagnostic Imaging: Radioactive isotopes are used in imaging

techniques such as X-rays, positron emission tomography (PET),
and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) to
visualize internal organs and detect abnormalities like tumors,
fractures, and blocked arteries.
• Cancer Treatment: Radioactive sources, such as cobalt-60 and
iodine-131, are used in radiation therapy to target and destroy
cancerous cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy
tissue. Techniques like brachytherapy involve placing
radioactive sources directly inside or near the tumor to deliver
targeted radiation doses.
• Thyroid Disorders: Radioactive iodine-131 is used to diagnose and
treat thyroid disorders, including hyperthyroidism and thyroid
cancer, by selectively targeting and destroying thyroid tissue.
Energy Production

• Nuclear Power Generation: Nuclear reactors harness the energy released

from nuclear fission reactions to produce electricity. Controlled fission of
uranium-235 or plutonium-239 generates heat, which is used to produce
steam and drive turbines connected to electrical generators. Nuclear power
plants provide a reliable and low-carbon source of electricity, contributing
to global energy needs.
• Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs): RTGs use the heat
generated by radioactive decay, typically from isotopes like plutonium-238,
to produce electricity for space missions, remote scientific instruments, and
unmanned spacecraft, where solar power is impractical or unavailable.
• Food Irradiation: Radioactive sources, such as cobalt-60 or cesium-137, are
used to irradiate food products to kill bacteria, parasites, and insects,
extending shelf life, reducing spoilage, and enhancing food safety without
affecting taste or nutritional value.
• Carbon Dating: The decay of radioactive
carbon-14 isotopes is used to determine the age
of archaeological artifacts, fossils, and
geological samples through radiocarbon dating,
providing valuable insights into the Earth's
history and past civilizations.
• Smoke Detectors: Ionization smoke detectors
utilize a small amount of radioactive material,
typically americium-241, to ionize air
molecules within the detector chamber. When
smoke particles enter the chamber, they disrupt
the ionization process, triggering the alarm.
Hazards: Ionizing Radiation Exposure

• Ionizing radiation emitted from radioactive materials can penetrate the body and interact with living
tissues, causing damage to cells and DNA.
• High doses of ionizing radiation can lead to acute radiation sickness, characterized by symptoms
such as nausea, vomiting, skin burns, and damage to internal organs. Chronic exposure to low doses
of ionizing radiation over time may increase the risk of developing cancer, genetic mutations, and
other long-term health effects.
• Environmental Impact:
• Radioactive contamination of soil, water, and air can have detrimental effects on ecosystems,
wildlife, and biodiversity. - Releases of radioactive materials into the environment, whether
accidental or intentional, can lead to long-term contamination and ecosystem disruption, affecting
food chains and ecological balance.
Accidents and Incidents

• Accidents, spills, leaks, or other incidents

involving radioactive materials can
result in widespread contamination,
radiation exposure, and adverse health
effects for workers, emergency
responders, and nearby communities.
• Major nuclear accidents, such as the
Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in
2011, have highlighted the catastrophic
consequences of radioactive releases on
human health, the environment, and socio-
economic stability.
Security Risks and
Nuclear Proliferation
• Radioactive materials, particularly those
used in nuclear weapons and nuclear
facilities, present security risks,
including theft, sabotage, illicit
trafficking, and terrorism.
• Nuclear proliferation, the spread of
nuclear weapons and technology to
non- state actors or countries, poses
global security threats and increases the
likelihood of nuclear accidents or
conflicts.
SAFETY MEASURES
AND REGULATIONS
Training and Education: Personnel involved in handling radioactive
materials must undergo specialized training and education to
understand the hazards associated with radioactivity, safe handling
procedures, and emergency response protocols. Training programs
cover topics such as radiation safety principles, radiation detection
and measurement, proper use of personal protective equipment (PPE),
and decontamination procedures.
Radiation Monitoring and Control: Regular monitoring of radiation
levels in workplaces, laboratories, and nuclear facilities is conducted
to ensure compliance with safety standards and regulations.
Radiation monitoring devices such as Geiger-Muller counters,
scintillation detectors, and dosimeters are used to measure radiation
exposure levels and identify potential sources of contamination.
Shielding and Containment: Radioactive materials are stored and
handled in shielded containers and lead-lined rooms to minimize
radiation exposure to workers and the environment. Shielding materials
such as lead, concrete, and water are used to attenuate radiation and
prevent its penetration into surrounding areas.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Workers handling radioactive

materials must wear appropriate PPE, including lab coats, gloves,
safety glasses, and respiratory protection devices, to minimize skin
contact, inhalation, and ingestion of radioactive contaminants. PPE
should be properly fitted, maintained, and inspected regularly to ensure
its effectiveness in protecting against radiation exposure.
• Waste Management and Disposal: Radioactive waste generated from
research, medical, industrial, and nuclear power activities must be
properly segregated, labeled, and stored according to its level of
radioactivity and half-life. Radioactive waste disposal methods include
secure storage, decay-in-storage, treatment and disposal in licensed
radioactive waste facilities or disposal sites approved by regulatory
authorities.
• Regulatory compliance: Regulatory agencies such as the Nuclear
Regulatory commission in the United States or the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) at the international level, establish
and enforce safety standards and regulations governing the use of
radioactive materials.
• Facilities handling radioactive materials are subject to regular
inspections, audits, and licensing requirements to ensure compliance
with safety regulations and maintain public and environmental safety.
 Summary

• Radioactivity
• Types of radioactivity: alpha
decay, beta decay and
gamma decay
• C haracteristics of radiations
• Half - life
• Applications
• Hazards
• Safety measures and
regulations