JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

Material Science and Metallurgy

II Year B.Tech.I Sem

UNIT-III MODULE -VII

 UNIT –III

CAST IRONS

Structure and properties of White Cast iron, Malleable Cast iron, grey cast
iron, Spheroidal graphite cast iron, Alloy cast irons.
Metals Classification
 MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
cast iron is manufactured by remelting pig iron with
coke and limestone.

this is done in a furnace known as cupola furnace.

The raw materials are fed from the top

The cupola furnace is worked intermittently and it

is open at the top.

After raw material is placed, furnace is fired and

blast of air is forced.

The blast of air is cold as the impurities in pig-iron

are removed by the oxidation.

The impurities of pig iron is removed and pure iron

is taken in the molten stage from the bottom of
furnace. CUPOLA FURNACE
The slag is also removed from the top of the cast iron. At regular intervals.

Molten cast iron are led into moulds of required shapes to form what we known as cast
iron.
• Carbon can occur in C.I’s as:
combined carbon (Fe3C) or free carbon (graphite)
•Shape and distribution of free carbon also important
Parameters that influence are:
• Carbon content,
• Alloy and impurity content,
• Cooling rate during and after freezing,
• Heat treatment after casting
Classification of Cast Irons is based on metallographic structure.

1. White Cast Iron (combined carbon Fe3C)

2. Malleable Cast Iron (free carbon as irregular
particles)
3. Chilled Cast Iron (white cast iron at the surface
and gray cast iron at the interior)
4. Grey Cast Iron (Flake Graphite)
5. Spheroidal Graphite (SG) / Ductile Cast Iron /
Nodular Cast Iron (free carbon as spheroids)
6. Alloy Cast Iron
 PROPERTIES OF CAST
IRON

• It is strong in compression but weak in tension.

• The tensile and compressive strengh of cast iron of average quality
is 150N/mm² and 600N/mm² resp.
• It does not rust easily.
• If placed in salt water, it becomes soft.
• low melting point
• Good fluidity
• It is hard but it is brittle also.
• It is not ductile hence it cannot be adopted to absorb shocks
and impacts.
• Its melting temperature is about 1250⁰C.
• It shrinks on cooling.

7
 EFFECT OF COOLING
RATE

Slow cooling favours the formation of graphite and low hardness.

Rapid cooling promotes carbides with high hardness.

Thick sections cools slowly, while thin sections cools down quickly.

Sand moulds cools slowly but metal chills can be used to increase cooling
rate and promotes white iron.

8
Factors influencing the microstructure of cast iron
Total amount of carbon
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Cooling rate
 Compositions of Cast iron

The cast iron contains about 2-4% of carbon. In addition it contains the various impurities
such as manganese, phosphorous, silicon and sulphur.

1. MANGANESE: (Below 0.75%) 3. SILICON: (Below 2.5%)

It makes cast iron hard and brittle.  It combines with part of iron and forms a
solid solution.
Its amount should therefore be kept  Removes combined carbon from graphite
below 0.75% or so. form.
 If its amount is less than 2.5%, it decreases
2. SULPHUR: (Below 0.10%) shrinkage and ensures softer and better
 It makes cast iron brittle and hard. casting.
 Does not allow smooth
cooling in sand moulds. 2.PHOSPHORUS: (0.3-1%)
 It increases fluidity and also makes it
 Its presence causes rapid solidification brittle.
of cast iron and it ultimately results in  When its amount is more than 0.3%
blow holes and sand holes. the
resulting cast iron is lacking in toughness and
 Sulphur content should be kept below workability.
0.10%  Its % is some times kept as about 1-1.5 to
get very thin casting. 1
0
CAST IRONS
 Introduction
 Alloys of iron and carbon in which % C varies between 2-6.67%
 Poor ductility and malleability; hence cannot be forged, rolled,
drawn or pressed into desired shape
 Named “CAST IRONS”, because the components are formed by melting and
casting with or without machining to the required final shape and size
 Properties:
 Cheap
 Lower melting temperatures (1150-1250ᵒ C) as compared to steels
(1350- 1500ᵒC)
 Excellent castability
 Corrosion resistant
 Brittle
 Properties can be adjusted by suitable alloying elements and heat treatment
 cast irons
Furnace Composition and purity

Air Electric Low High

Nickel
Cupola CI furnace Duplex CI carbon, low carbon, low
alloy CI
CI furnace silicon CI sulphur CI
CI

Microstructure and appearance of fracture

White CI Malleable Nodular Mottled

Gray CI Chilled CI Alloy CI
CI CI CI
 White cast iron
 Carbon present in combined form (cementite)
and there is no free carbon (graphite)
 Composition: C: 2.3-3%, Si: 0.5-1.3%, S: 0.06-
0.1%, P: 0.1-0.2%, Mn: 0.5-1%
 Because of faster cooling rate appears as white
fractured surface.
 No graphitisation and hence called as WCI
 Properties: Strong in compression (1750MPa),
hard (350-500 BHN), resistant to abrasive wear,
brittle, difficult to machine hence finishing to
final size is done by grinding only
Microstructures of white CI:
 Used to malleable CI
the light cementite regions
 Applications: Pump liners, Road roller surfaces, are surrounded by pearlite,
mill liners, grinding balls, dies and extrusion which has the ferrite
nozzles cementite layered structure.
200x [Source: William
Callister, 2007]
 Malleable cast iron
 Heating white cast iron around 900ᵒ C and holding
for long time (24hrs to several days), followed by
very slow cooling to room temperature produces
malleable cast iron
 Contains 2.5% C and 1% Si
 Cementite decomposes during the heat treatment to
more stable form (graphite)
 The free carbon precipitates in the form of
spheroidal particles (temper carbon)
 Properties:
 Show ductility, toughness and are bendable
 Good capacity to absorb shock and vibrations
 NOT MALLEABLE; cannot be rolled, forged or Microstructure of
extruded malleable CI: dark
 T. S. = 700MPa, % elongation = 10-15%, Hardness graphite rosettes (temper
= 80-275 BHN carbon) in an α-ferrite
 More expensive than grey cast iron because of heat matrix. 150x [Source:
William Callister, 2007]
treatment involved
 Applications: Automobile crankshaft, chain links
and brackets, brake pedals, tractor springs, universal
joint yoke
 Malleable cast iron
 Types of malleable cast iron:
 Ferritic malleable
 Pearlitic malleable
 Pearlitic-ferritic malleable
 Black heart malleable
 White heart malleable
 malleable cast iron
 Produced due to intermediate cooling rate between
those to produce ferritic malleable and pearlitic
malleable cast irons
 Cooling rate is slow enough to graphitise all the
proeutectoid cementite and a part of eutectoid
cementite
 Since carbon itself is a graphitiser, the cementite
from pearlite adjacent to the existing rosettes of
temper carbon graphite decomposes rapidly without
graphitising cementite away from the rosettes
 Thus, microstructure at room temperature shows
rosettes of temper carbon graphite surrounded by an
envelope of ferrite
 Matrix is coarse pearlite or slightly spherodised due M
iferritic malleable cast iron
to slow cooling c
 Properties: Intermediate to ferritic and pearlitic r showing bull’s eye
cast iron ostructure. 100x [Source: V.
s D. Kodgire, 2009]
 Applications: Machinery parts such as rolls, t
pumps, nozzles, cams and rocker arms; axle and r
differential housing, cam shaft and crankshaft u
c
t
u

Grey cast iron
Show gray fracture and contain graphite flakes
 Flakes are curved plates, in three
interconnected
 dimensions
Graphite formed during freezing
 Graphite flakes are sharp at their tips and act like internal
cracks or stresses
 Composition: 2.5-3.8% C, 1.1-2.8% Si, 0.4-1%
Mn, 0.15%P and 0.1% S
 Properties: Depend upon morphology and
size of
graphite flakes
 Brittle, weak in tension, strong in compression (as cracks
do not propagate under compressive load)
 High fluidity and hence it can be cast into complex shapes
and thin sections easily
 Low shrinkage during solidification
 Good wear resistance because graphite acts as lubricant Microstructures of Gray iron:
 Better damping capacity than steel
 the dark graphite flakes are
Low notch sensitivity due to the presence of large number
of internal sharp notches (edges of graphite flakes) which embedded in an –ferrite
make the influence of external notch ineffective matrix. 500x [Source: William
 Easy to machine, as chip formation is promoted by Callister, 2007]
graphite flakes. Also flakes serve as lubricant for cutting
tool
 Good bearing properties
 Fairly good corrosion resistance
 Grey cast iron
 Low ductility and impact strength
 T. S. = 150-400MPa, Hardness = 150-300BHN, % elongation = < 1%
 Cheaper than steel (low temperatures involved in casting and low control on
impurities as compared to steel)
 Defects:
 Growth
 Firecracks or heat checks
 These defects can be reduced by adding Cr, Mo and Ni
 Applications: Manhole covers, M/c tool structures like bed, frames; Cylinder
block and head of IC engine, Gas or water pipes for underground purpose,
flywheels etc, elevators etc

Manhole covers Engine cylinder block

Nodular (Ductile or Spheroidal) cast iron
 Contains graphite in the form of spheroids
 Produced from grey cast iron by adding nodulising
elements like Mg, Ca, Ba, Li, Zr or Ce
 Composition: 3.2-4.2% C, 1.1-3.5% Si, 0.3-0.8% Mn,
0.08% P, 0.2% S
 Since nodulising elements have strong affinity for
sulphur and they scavenge sulphur from the molten bath
as an initial step in producing nodular graphite. These
elements are expensive and hence for effective utilization
of these elements, the original grey melt must contain
less amount of sulphur (< 0.03%). Sulphur content is
reduced by treating the melt with soda ash
 Properties:
 More tensile strength, ductility and toughness as
compared to grey cast iron
 Excellent machinability, castability and wear resistance
 Do not suffer from defects like growth and firecracks
 T. S. = 400-800MPa, % elongation = 10-18, Hardness =
100-300 BHN
Microstructure of nodular
 Defects: CI: the dark graphite nodules
 Blow holes are surrounded by an -ferrite
 Shrinkage matrix. 200x [Source:
 Applications: Agricultural implements, industrial fan William Callister, 2007]
hub, Crankshafts, gears, punch dies, sheet metal dies,
steel mill rolls and milling equipment, valves, pistons etc
 Pump liner
Valv
Flywheel e

Pistons Universal joint yoke

Tractor springs
 Mottled cast iron
 Shows free cementite and graphite flakes
in its microstructure
 Composition: 93.5% iron, 1.75%
graphite, remaining impurities
 For a given composition, faster cooling
rates gives white structure and slow
cooling rates results in grey structure.
Intermediate cooling rates produces
mottled cast iron
 Mottled structures to be avoided because
of bad properties
 Can be avoided by increasing or
decreasing carbon and silicon content Microstructure of mottled cast
 Increasing carbon and silicon iron. 500x [Source: V. D.
yields
contentgrey cast iron Kodgore, 2009]
 Decreasing carbon and silicon
content yields white cast iron
 Chilled cast iron
 Shows white structure at surface and grey
structure in centre
 Composition is adjusted in such a way that
rapid cooling gives white structure and usual
cooling gives grey structure
 Composition: % C: 3.3-3.5, %Si: 2-2.5
 Surface cooled rapidly by metal or graphite
chillers or chill plates
 Depth of chill can be controlled by
controlling the carbon and silicon contents
and by other alloying additions which are
either carbide formers or graphitisers
 Increase in % C, silicon and graphitizers
decreases chill depth and viceversa
 Properties:
 Hard and wear resistant
 Good machinability
 Good damping capacity
Chiller plates
 Low notch sensitivity
 Applications: Railway freight car wheels,
crushing balls, road rollers, hammers, dies
etc
 Cast Irons
• The microstructure of cast iron has two extremes
1. Liquid austenite + Fe3C (white cast iron)
2. Liquid austenite + graphite (gray, ductile…)
• graphite formation is promoted by
– Slow cooling
– High C and Si content
– Heavy or thick section size
– Inoculation particles
– Presence of S, P, Al, Ni, Sn, Mn, Cu, Cobilt, antimony
• Formation of cementite (Fe3C) is favored by
– Fast cooling
– Low C and Si contents
– Thin sections
– Alloying elements, titanium, vanadium, zirconium,
chromium, manganese, and molybdenum
 Types of Cast Iron
• Depending on chemical composition, cooling
rate, types and amount of inoculants that are
used we can have
a. Gray iron
b. White iron
c. Malleable iron
d. Ductile iron
e. Compacted graphite iron
• Gray cast iron
– The least expensive and most common type
– Characterized by formation of graphite
– Typical composition ranges from 2.5-4.0% C, 1.0-3.0% Si, and
0.4-1.0% Mn.
– contains small, interconnected graphite flakes that cause low
strength and ductility.
– It is the most widely used cast iron
– It is named for the dull gray color of the fractured surface.
– The gray irons are specified by a class number of 20 to 80.
• Properties
– high compressive strength,
– good machinability,
– good resistance to sliding wear,
– good resistance to thermal fatigue,
– good thermal conductivity, and
– good vibration damping.
 Gray CI
• Application;
– Damping vibrational energy
• Base structures for machines and heavy equipment
– High resistance to wear.
– High fluidity at casting temperature
• Intricate shapes; Low casting shrinkage allowance.
– (strength is not a primary consideration)
– Tensile strength 120 – 300 MPa
• Small cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, pistons, liners, clutch plates,
transmission cases.
• gears, flywheels, water pipes, engine cylinders, brake discs,
Machinery beds
• White cast iron
– is a hard, brittle alloy containing massive amounts of
Fe3C.
– A fractured surface of this material appears white, hence
the name.
– Features promoting formation of cementite over
graphite
• A low carbon equivalent (1.8-3.6 %C, 0.5-1.9%Si, 0.25-0.8%Mn)
and
• Rapid cooling
• A group of highly alloyed white irons are used for
their hardness and resistance to abrasive wear.
 White CI
• Application:
– brake shoes, shot blasting nozzles, mill liners, crushers,
pump impellers and other abrasion resistant parts.
– wear-resistant surface, example, as rollers in rolling mills.
Generally, white iron is used as an intermediary in the
production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron
• White fracture surface
• No graphite, because carbon forms Fe3C or
more complex carbides
• Abrasion resistant
• Often alloyed
• Malleable cast iron
– formed by the heat treatment (in range of 900⁰C) of
unalloyed 3%C white cast iron (carbon equivalent 2.5%C,
1.5%Si)
– the cementite dissociates into its component elements
(graphite clumps, or nodules)
– It exhibits better ductility than gray or white cast irons. It
is also very machinable.
• The production steps
• first stage graphitization: cementite decomposes to
the stable austenite and graphite phases
• second stage graphitization: slow cooling through
eutectoid temperature to make ferritic malleable
iron
• when austenite is cooled
in air or oil Pearlitic
malleable iron is obtained
(pearlite or martensite.)
• Drawing: is a heat
treatment that tempers
the martensite or
spheroidizes the pearlite.

Application
Connecting rods, transmission gears, and differential cases
for the automotive industry, and also flanges, pipe fittings,
and valve parts for railroad, marine, and other heavy-duty
services
parts of power train of vehicles, bearing caps, steering
gear housings, agricultural equipment, railroad equipment
• Ductile or nodular cast iron
– contains spheroidal graphite particles.
– produced by treating liquid iron with a carbon equivalent
of near 4.3% with magnesium
• Steps
– Desulfurization: CaO is used to remove sulfure and oxygen
from the liquid.
– Nodulizing: Mg in dilute form (MgFeSi alloy) is added, a
residual of 0.03%Mg must be present after treatment in
order for spheroidal graphite to grow
• inoculation: heterogeneous nucleation of the
graphite is essential
• Fading: occurs by the gradual, nonviolent loss of Mg
due to vaporization and/or reaction with oxygen
 Ductile or nodular cast iron
• Application:
– valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, high-strength gears
(heavy duty gears) and machine, rollers, slides, die
material having high strength and high ductility.

• Inoculation with Ce or Mg or both causes

graphite to form as spherulites, rather than
flakes
• Also known as spheroidal graphite (SG), and
nodular graphite iron
• Far better ductility than grey cast iron