MODULE 3

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
SYLLABUS
 Introduction-Transmission modes
➔ Simplex
◆ communication is unidirectional
◆ Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
◆ Eg:Keyboards and traditional monitors
◆ Advantages: can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
➔ Half-Duplex
◆ each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
◆ When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
◆ Eg: Walkie-talkies
◆ Advantages: the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
➔ Full-Duplex(Duplex)
◆ both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
◆ Advantages:the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
◆ Eg:telephone network.
◆ When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time.
Transmission modes
 Introduction

➔ Data communication is the process of transferring data between devices that are
connected or networked

➔ The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel
or serial mode.

➔ In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock .

➔ In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock.

➔ While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses of serial
transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous
Parallel Transmission
➔ Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of n bits
each.
➔ By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called
parallel transmission.
➔ Use n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit has its own wire,
and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock tick from one
device to another
➔ Advantages: increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial
transmission
➔ Disadvantage: cost. Parallel transmission requires n communication lines
just to transmit the data stream. Because this is expensive, parallel
transmission is usually limited to short distances.
Figure shows how parallel transmission works for n =8. Typically, the eight
wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.
Serial Transmission

➔ one bit follows another

➔ we need only one communication channel rather than n to
transmit data between two communicating devices
➔ Advantages:only one communication channel, serial
transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel
➔ Disadvantages: Since communication within devices is
parallel, conversion devices are required at the interface
between the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and
between the line and the receiver (serial-to-parallel).
Types of serial transmission
Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways:

1. Asynchronous
2. Synchronous
3. Isochronous
1. Asynchronous Transmission
➔ The timing of a signal is unimportant.
➔ Prior to data transfer, both sender & receiver agree on pattern of information
to be exchanged
➔ Normally, patterns are based on grouping the bit-stream into bytes.
➔ The sender transmits each group to the link without regard to a timer.the
transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying
duration.
➔ To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra bit is
added to the beginning of each byte. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start
bit.
➔ To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, extra bits are appended to
the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1, are called stop bits.
➔ Disadvantage:
◆ The addition of stop and start bits and the insertion of gaps into the bit
stream make asynchronous transmission slower than forms of
transmission that can operate without the addition of control information.
➔ Advantage:But it is cheap and effective,two advantages that make it an
attractive choice for situations such as low-speed communication
2. Synchronous Transmission
➔ we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps. It is the
responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
➔ the bit stream is combined into longer "frames," which may contain multiple
bytes
➔ data are transmitted as an unbroken string of 1s and 0s, and the receiver
separates that string into the bytes, or characters, it needs to reconstruct the
information.
➔ Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the
received information is completely dependent on the ability of the receiving
device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they come in.
➔ Advantages: speed.
◆ synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission.
◆ With no extra bits or gaps to introduce at the sending end and
remove at the receiving end
➔ Disadvantages:
◆ there is no gap between characters in synchronous serial
transmission, there may be uneven gaps between frames
3. Isochronous Transmission
➔ In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are
not acceptable,synchronous transmission fails
➔ For this type of application, synchronization between characters is not
enough;the entire stream of bits must be synchronized. The isochronous
transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.
MULTIPLEXING
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.
➔ n lines share the bandwidth of one link.
➔ The lines on sender direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer
(MUX), which combines them into a single stream (many-to one).

➔ At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX),

which separates the stream back into its component transmissions
(one-to-many) and directs them to their corresponding lines.

➔ Link refers to the physical path.

➔ Channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a
given pair of lines.
➔ One link can have many (n) channels.
There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital
signals.Analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link
(in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.
 1. Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
➔ signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies.
➔ These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal
that can be transported by the link
➔ Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the
various signals travel.
➔ Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent
signals from overlapping.
➔ carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
➔ Applications:
◆ AM and FM radio broadcasting
◆ Cable television:Multiple television channels are transmitted simultaneously on a single cable
◆ first generation of cellular telephones
Multiplexing Process
Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the
multiplexer, these similar signals modulates different carrier frequencies
(f1,f2, and f3). The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it.
Demultiplexing Process
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal
into its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a
demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the
output lines.
The Analog Carrier System
To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies have
traditionally multiplexed signals from lower-bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth
lines. In this way, many switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but
bigger channels. For analog lines, FDM is used.
2. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
➔ WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
➔ designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable.
➔ conceptually same as FDM,
◆ except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals
transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
➔ combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do
the reverse at the demultiplexer.
➔ Dense WDM (DWDM):can multiplex a very large number of channels by
spacing channels very close to one another. It achieves even greater efficiency.
➔ Application:
◆ Synchronous Optical Network(SONET):
● popular communication protocol
WDM-Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider
band of light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
A prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the
frequency. Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several
input beams of light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one
output beam of a wider band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to
reverse the process.
 3. Time-Division Multiplexing
➔ TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.
➔ Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
➔ Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
➔ Digital data from different sources are combined into one time shared link.
➔ Divide TDM into two different schemes:

Synchronous TDM

Statistical TDM
TDM
1. Synchronous TDM

➔ In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is

collected into a frame
➔ If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots ,with each
slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input line.
➔ If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is Tin and the
duration of each frame is T
➔ the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times
shorter.
Synchronous TDM
Interleaving
➔ The process of taking a group of bits from each input line for multiplexing is
called interleaving.
➔ We interleave bits (1 - n) from each input onto one output.
2. Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
➔ In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. This can
be inefficient if some input lines have no data to send.
➔ In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically allocated to
improve bandwidth efficiency. Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data
to send is it given a slot in the output frame.
➔ the number of slots in each frame is less than the number of input lines.
➔ The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin fashion; it allocates a slot
for an input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and checks
the next line.
➔ Addressing:
➔ a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.
➔ The addressing in its simplest form can be n bits to define N different output lines
with n =10g2 N.
➔ Slot Size
➔ Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the
data size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient.
For example, it would be inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when the address
is 3 bits. This would mean an overhead of 300 percent.
➔ No Synchronization Bit
➔ The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized,so we do not need
synchronization bits.
➔ Bandwidth
➔ In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel.
 SPREAD SPECTRUM
➔ combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth
➔ designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs)
➔ In wireless applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for
communication. Stations must be able to share this medium without interception
by an eavesdropper and without being subject to jamming from a malicious
intruder (in military operations, for example).
➔ To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy,they spread
the original spectrum needed for each station.
➔ If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to
Bss, such that Bss >> B. The expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its
message in a protective envelope for a more secure transmission
Spread spectrum achieves its goals through two principles:

1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be larger

than what is needed. This allows redundancy.

2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the

bandwidth Bss must be done by a process that is independent
of the original signal. In other words, the spreading process
occurs after the signal is created by the source.
➔ After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a
spreading code and spreads the bandwidth.
➔ The figure shows the original bandwidth B and the spread bandwidth BSS.
➔ The spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are actually
a pattern.
There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
1. Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
2. Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum(FHSS)

➔ ‘M’ different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the

source signal.
➔ At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at
the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier
frequency.
➔ Although the modulation is done using one carrier
frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long run.
➔ The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is
BFHSS >> B.
➔ A pseudorandom code
generator, called pseudo
random noise (PN),
creates a k-bit pattern for
every hopping period Th
➔ The frequency table
uses the pattern to find
the frequency to be used
for this hopping period
and passes it to the
frequency synthesizer.
➔ The frequency
synthesizer creates a
carrier signal of that
frequency, and the source
signal modulates the
➔ Example:
➔ Suppose we have
decided to have eight
hopping frequencies.
➔ In this case, M is 8
and k is 3.
➔ The pseudo-random
code generator will
create eight different
3-bit patterns.
➔ These are mapped to
eight different
frequencies in the
frequency table.
➔ The pattern for this
station is 101, 111,
001, 000, 010, 011,
100.
➔ Note that the pattern is Figure 6.30 shows how the signal hops around from
pseudorandom; it is repeated carrier to carrier.
after eight hoppings.
➔ This means that at hopping
period 1, the pattern is 101.
The frequency selected is 700
kHz; the source signal
modulates this carrier
frequency. The second k-bit
pattern selected is 111, which
selects the 900-kHz carrier; the
eighth pattern is 100, and the
frequency is 600 kHz. After
eight hoppings, the pattern
repeats, starting from 101
again.
➔ We assume the required
bandwidth of the original signal
Advantages:
➔ If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender and
receiver can have privacy.
➔ If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted signal, intruder can only access
a small piece of data because she does not know the spreading sequence to
quickly adapt herself to the next hop.
➔ The scheme also has an antijamming effect. A malicious sender may be able
to send noise to jam the signal for one hopping period (randomly),but not for
the whole period.
FDM vs FHSS
Bandwidth Sharing

In FHSSS: each station uses 1/M of the bandwidth, but the allocation changes hop
to hop.

In FDM: each station uses 1/M of the bandwidth, but the allocation is fixed;
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
➔ DSSS technique also expands the bandwidth of the original signal, but the
process is different.
➔ each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate
is n times that of the data bit.
As an example, let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous

Barker sequence, where n is 11. We assume that the original signal and the
chips in the chip generator use polar NRZ encoding.

Figure shows the chips and the result of multiplying the original data by
the chips to get the spread signal.
➔ The spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000 (in this case).
➔ If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N.
➔ This means that the required bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger
than the bandwidth of the original signal.
➔ Advantages:

The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know
the code.

It can also provide immunity against interference if each station uses

a different code.
CDMA