DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS

Dr. Kashif Ayyub

1
Randomized Quick Sort
• Randomized quick sort is designed to decrease the chances of the algorithm
being executed in the worst-case time complexity of .
• The worst-case time complexity of quick sort arises when the input given is an
already sorted list, leading to comparisons.
• Making the pivot element a random variable is commonly used method in the
randomized quick sort. Here, even if the input is sorted, the pivot is chosen
randomly so the worst-case time complexity is avoided.
• The algorithm exactly follows the standard algorithm except it randomizes the
pivot selection.

2
Randomized Quick Sort - Example
• Let’s take a sorted list as an input for this example.
3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 15

Case-1 Case-2
Considering the worst case possible, if the random If the random pivot function chooses 7 as the pivot
pivot chosen is also the highest index number, it number. Now the pivot divides the list into half so
compares all the other numbers and another pivot is standard quick sort is carried out usually. However,
selected. Since 15 is greater than all the other the time complexity is decreased than the worst case.
numbers in the list, it won’t be swapped, and another
pivot is chosen.

3
What is a “heap”?
• Definitions of heap:
1. A large area of memory from which the programmer can
allocate blocks as needed, and deallocate them (or allow
them to be garbage collected) when no longer needed
2. A balanced, left-justified binary tree in which no node
has a value greater than the value in its parent
• These two definitions have little in common
• Heapsort uses the second definition
Why study Heapsort?
• It is a well-known, traditional sorting algorithm you will be expected
to know
• Heapsort is always O(n log n)
• Quicksort is usually O(n log n) but in the worst case slows to O(n2)
• Quicksort is generally faster, but Heapsort is better in time-critical
applications
• Heapsort is a really cool algorithm!
Balanced binary trees
• Recall:
• The depth of a node is its distance from the root
• The depth of a tree is the depth of the deepest node
• A binary tree of depth n is balanced if all the nodes at depths 0 through n-2
have two children

n-2
n-1
n

Balanced Balanced Not balanced

Left-justified binary trees
• A balanced binary tree is left-justified if:
• all the leaves are at the same depth, or
• all the leaves at depth n+1 are to the left of all the nodes at depth n

Left-justified Not left-justified

Plan of attack
• First, we will learn how to turn a binary tree into a heap
• Next, we will learn how to turn a binary tree back into a heap after it has been
changed in a certain way
• Finally (this is the cool part) we will see how to use these ideas to sort an
array
The heap property
• A node has the heap property if the value in the node is as large as or larger
than the values in its children

12 12 12

8 3 8 12 8 14
Blue node has Blue node has Blue node does not have
heap property heap property heap property

• All leaf nodes automatically have the heap property

• A binary tree is a heap if all nodes in it have the heap property
siftUp
• Given a node that does not have the heap property, you can give it the heap
property by exchanging its value with the value of the larger child

12 14

8 14 8 12
Blue node does not have Blue node has
heap property heap property

• This is sometimes called sifting up

• Notice that the child may have lost the heap property
Constructing a heap I
• A tree consisting of a single node is automatically a heap
• We construct a heap by adding nodes one at a time:
• Add the node just to the right of the rightmost node in the deepest level
• If the deepest level is full, start a new level
• Examples:

Add a new Add a new

node here node here
Constructing a heap II
• Each time we add a node, we may destroy the heap property of its parent
node
• To fix this, we sift up
• But each time we sift up, the value of the topmost node in the sift may
increase, and this may destroy the heap property of its parent node
• We repeat the sifting up process, moving up in the tree, until either
• We reach nodes whose values don’t need to be swapped (because the parent is still
larger than both children), or
• We reach the root
Constructing a heap III

8 8 10 10

10 8 8 5

1 2 3

10 10 12

8 5 12 5 10 5

12 8 8
4
Other children are not affected

12 12 14

10 5 14 5 12 5

8 14 8 10 8 10

• The node containing 8 is not affected because its parent gets larger, not smaller
• The node containing 5 is not affected because its parent gets larger, not smaller
• The node containing 8 is still not affected because, although its parent got smaller, its
parent is still greater than it was originally
A sample heap
• Here’s a sample binary tree after it has been heapified

25

22 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9 11

• Notice that heapified does not mean sorted

• Heapifying does not change the shape of the binary tree; this binary tree is
balanced and left-justified because it started out that way
Removing the root
• Notice that the largest number is now in the root
• Suppose we discard the root:

11

22 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9 11

• How can we fix the binary tree so it is once again balanced and left-justified?
• Solution: remove the rightmost leaf at the deepest level and use it for the new root
The reHeap method I
• Our tree is balanced and left-justified, but no longer a heap
• However, only the root lacks the heap property

11

22 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9

• We can siftUp() the root

• After doing this, one and only one of its children may have lost the heap property
The reHeap method II
• Now the left child of the root (still the number 11) lacks the heap property

22

11 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9

• We can siftUp() this node

• After doing this, one and only one of its children may have lost the heap
property
The reHeap method III
• Now the right child of the left child of the root (still the number 11) lacks the heap
property:
22

22 17

19 11 14 15

18 14 21 3 9

• We can siftUp() this node

• After doing this, one and only one of its children may have lost the heap property —but it
doesn’t, because it’s a leaf
The reHeap method IV
• Our tree is once again a heap, because every node in it has the heap property

22

22 17

19 21 14 15

18 14 11 3 9

• Once again, the largest (or a largest) value is in the root

• We can repeat this process until the tree becomes empty
• This produces a sequence of values in order largest to smallest
Sorting
• What do heaps have to do with sorting an array?
• Here’s the neat part:
• Because the binary tree is balanced and left justified, it can be represented
as an array
• All our operations on binary trees can be represented as operations on
arrays
• To sort:
heapify the array;
while the array isn’t empty {
remove and replace the root;
reheap the new root node;
}
Mapping into an array
• Notice:
• The left child of index i is at index 2*i+1
• The right child of index i is at index 2*i+2
• Example: the children of node 3 (19) are 7 (18) and 8 (14)

25

22 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9 11

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
25 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 9 11
Removing and replacing the root
• The “root” is the first element in the array
• The “rightmost node at the deepest level” is the last element
• Swap them...
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
25 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 9 11

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 9 25

• ...And pretend that the last element in the array no longer exists—that is, the “last index”
is 11 (9)
Reheap and repeat
• Reheap the root node (index 0, containing 11)...
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 9 25

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
22 22 17 19 21 14 15 18 14 11 3 9 25

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
9 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 22 25

• ...And again, remove and replace the root node

• Remember, though, that the “last” array index is changed
• Repeat until the last becomes first, and the array is sorted!
Analysis I
• Here’s how the algorithm starts:
heapify the array;
• Heapifying the array: we add each of n nodes
• Each node has to be sifted up, possibly as far as the root
• Since the binary tree is perfectly balanced, sifting up a single node takes
O(log n) time
• Since we do this n times, heapifying takes n*O(log n) time, that
is, O(n log n) time
Analysis II
• Here’s the rest of the algorithm:
while the array isn’t empty {
remove and replace the root;
reheap the new root node;
}
• We do the while loop n times (actually, n-1 times), because we
remove one of the n nodes each time
• Removing and replacing the root takes O(1) time
• Therefore, the total time is n times however long it takes the
reheap method
Analysis III
• To reheap the root node, we have to follow one path from the root to a leaf
node (and we might stop before we reach a leaf)
• The binary tree is perfectly balanced
• Therefore, this path is O(log n) long
• And we only do O(1) operations at each node
• Therefore, reheaping takes O(log n) times
• Since we reheap inside a while loop that we do n times, the total time for the
while loop is n*O(log n), or O(n log n)
Analysis IV
• Here’s the algorithm again:
heapify the array;
while the array isn’t empty {
remove and replace the root;
reheap the new root node;
}
• We have seen that heapifying takes O(n log n) time
• The while loop takes O(n log n) time
• The total time is therefore O(n log n) + O(n log n)
• This is the same as O(n log n) time