2.

0 METALS
 Metals
• metal, any of a class of substances characterized by
high electrical and thermal conductivity,
malleability, ductility, and high reflectivity of light.
• The most abundant varieties in the Earth’s crust
are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,
and magnesium.
• The vast majority of metals are found in ores (mineral-
bearing substances), but a few such
as copper, gold, platinum, and silver frequently occur in
the free state because they do not readily react with
other elements.
 Physical Properties of Metals

• good conductors of heat and electricity. Cooking utensils and irons are made up
of metals as they are good conductors of heat.
• Ductile – can be pulled into wire
• Malleable – able to be pounded into sheets. Aluminium sheets are used
in the manufacturing of Aircrafts because of their lightweight and strength.
• Metals are sonorous because they produces a deep or ringing sound when struck
with another hard object.
• Solid at room temperature (with the exception of mercury)
• Usually shiny, with metallic luster
• High melting point
• High density (exceptions: lithium, potassium and sodium)
• Corrode in air or seawater
• Lose electrons in reactions
 Chemical properties of Metals

• Reaction with water: Only highly reactive metals react with water and not
all the metals. For example, Sodium reacts vigorously with water and
oxygen and gives a large amount of heat in the process. Reaction with
acids: Hydrogen gas is produced when metals react with acids. For
example, when zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid it produces zinc chloride
and hydrogen gas.
• Reaction with bases: Not all the metals react with bases and when they do
react, they produce metal salts and hydrogen gas. When zinc reacts with
strong sodium hydroxide it gives sodium zincate and hydrogen gas.
• Reaction with oxygen: Metal oxides are produced when metals burn in the
presence of oxygen. These metal oxides are basic in nature. For example:
When a magnesium strip is burned in the presence of oxygen it forms
magnesium oxide and when magnesium oxide dissolves in water it forms
magnesium hydroxide.
 Extractive metallurgy

• mineral processing, art of treating crude ores and mineral products in

order to separate the valuable minerals from the waste rock, or
gangue. It is the first process that most ores undergo after mining in
order to provide a more concentrated material for the procedures of
extractive metallurgy.
• Following separation and concentration by mineral processing,
metallic minerals are subjected to extractive metallurgy, in which their
metallic elements are extracted from chemical compound form and
refined of impurities.
• smelting, in which all the constituents of an ore or concentrate are
completely melted and separated into two liquid layers, one
containing the valuable metals and the other the waste rock.
 Extractive metallurgy

• Extraction is often followed by refining, in which the

level of impurities is brought lower or controlled by
pyrometallurgical, electrolytic, or chemical means.
• Pyrometallurgical refining usually consists of the
oxidizing of impurities in a high-temperature liquid
bath.
2.1 Ferrous Metals
 Ferrous metals

Ferrous metals includes all forms of iron and steel. Iron in its various
forms, including steel, is by far the most important of the metals used
in the construction industry.
Chemical composition and internal structure of ferrous metals are
closely controlled during manufacturing. Therefore, strength and other
mechanical properties can be determined with a high degree of
reliability.
People in the construction field have little control on the quality of iron
or steel. Compared to concrete, of which are partially “manufactured”
during installation at the construction site, there is little that can be
done to improve or harm a ferrous metal product once it leaves the
fabrication shop.
 Historical Background
• Cast iron is the first metal as a structural material used on a 30m arch
span bridge built in England in 1777-1779.
• A number of cast-iron bridges were built during 1780-1820 mostly
arch shaped with main girders consisting of individual cast iron pieces
forming bars or trusses.
• Wrought iron began replacing cast iron soon after 1840, the earliest is
the Brittania bridge in Wales built in 1846-1850 made of wrought iron
plates and angles.
• Since 1890, steel has replaced wrought iron as the principal metallic
building material.
• Currently(1989) steels have yield stresses varying from 165 – 690
Mpa.
Cast Iron Skillet
Wrought Iron
 Manufacture of Pig Iron
• a low grade of iron in a continuously operating furnace called a blast
furnace. These furnaces are about 200 ft high and about 50 ft in
diameter (see figure).
• Iron ore, coke, and limestone are loaded continuously at the top.
• Iron ore is an oxide of iron found in nature mixed with rock or soil
called gangue.
• Coke is produced by heating coal to drive the impurities out. It then
burns with greater heat than coal.
Pig iron
Manufacture of Pig Iron

• Burning the coke with a strong blast of

hot air melt the iron ore and
limestone at about 815°C.
• The heat melts the iron, frees it of
oxygen, and forms carbon monoxide
gas, which imparts carbon to the
liquid iron.
• Melting permits separation of iron
from the gangue, which combines
with the molten limestone to form
slag.
 Manufacture of Pig Iron
Iron is much heavier than slag, iron flows to the bottom of the furnace and
molten slag floats on the iron. Iron is removed from a tap near the bottom
and slag from a tap slightly higher.
Liquid iron flows into molds and is allowed to solidify into shapes called
pigs, or it is taken in a ladle while still liquid to be refined into steel or a
better grade of iron. In either case, the product of the blast furnace is
called pig iron.
Pig iron contains about 4% carbon, 2 % silicon, 1 % manganese, and 0.05%
sulfur.
Pig iron is not useful for construction because it is weak and brittle,
although it is very hard.
To produce useful iron or steel, a second melting is needed for further
purification.
 Manufacture of Cast Iron
• Cast iron is a general term denoting ferrous metals composed primarily of
iron, 2-4% carbon, and silicon, and shaped by being cast in a mold. They are
too brittle to be shaped any other way. The brittleness is caused by the
large amount of carbon present, which also increases strength.
• The cast-iron is manufactured by re-melting pig-iron with coke and
limestone. This re-melting is done in a furnace known as the cupola
furnace. It is more or less same as the blast furnace, but it is smaller in size.
Its shape is cylindrical with diameter of about 1 m and height of about 5 m.
Figure shows a typical cupola furnace.
• Chemical composition is controlled by the addition of scrap iron or steel of
various kinds and of silicon and manganese as needed.
• The molten metal flows from the furnace to a ladle from which it is poured
into molds to be formed into useful shapes. This operation is called casting.
Manufacture of Cast-Iron:
 White Cast Iron
• White cast-produced by rapid cooling of molten pig iron and carbon
completely combined with the iron. A fractured surface appears bright
white.
• The advantages of white iron over gray iron
• Hight strength of 275 Mpa (40 ksi)
• Very brittle
• Not easily machined
• Abrasion resistant
• Less resistant to corrosion
• Used in machinery such as crushers, grinders, chutes, and
mixers where resistance to abrasion is critical.
• A532- 86% iron, 3.3% carbon, 4% nickel, 2.5% nickel
White Cast Iron
 Gray Cast Iron
• Gray cast – produced by slow cooling of molten pig iron. The most
widely used type of iron, has a high carbon content and contains large
numbers of graphite flakes.
• Properties of gray iron include
• low viscosity when molten (so that fairly intricate castings can be
made),
• excellent machinability,
• high resistance to abrasion, and rather
• poor ductility and toughness
• Tensile strength of 150-400 Mpa
• ASTM A48 Class 40, 92-94% iron, 3.25-3.5% carbon, 2% silicon, 0.6%
Manganese
Gray Cast Iron
 Ductile Cast Iron
• Ductile iron, also known as nodular iron or spheroidal
graphite iron, is very similar to gray iron in composition, but
during solidification the graphite nucleates as spherical
particles (nodules) in ductile iron, rather than as flakes.
• The matrix phase surrounding these particles is either pearlite
or ferrite, depending on heat treatment.
• Ductile iron is stronger and more shock resistant than gray
iron, so although it is more expensive due to alloyants, it may
be the preferred economical choice because a lighter casting
can perform the same function.
• ASTM A536 86% Iron, 3.5% carbon, 2.2 % silicon, 0.5%
magnesium, 0.20% Manganese.
 Malleable Cast Iron
• Malleable cast iron is white cast iron that has been
annealed. An annealing heat treatment transforms
the brittle structure as the first cast into
the malleable form. Therefore, its composition is
similar to white cast iron, with slightly higher amounts
of carbon and silicon.
• Malleable iron, like ductile iron, possesses considerable
ductility and toughness. Like ductile iron, malleable iron
also exhibits high resistance to corrosion and excellent
machinability.
• Used for small castings requiring good tensile strength and the
ability to flex without breaking (ductility).
• Uses include electrical fittings, hand tools, pipe fittings,
washers, brackets, fence fittings, power line hardware, farm
 Manufacture of Wrought Iron

• Wrought iron is highly refined iron with slag deliberately incorporated

but not in chemical union with the iron. The slag forms one-
directional fibers uniformly distributed throughout the metal.
• puddling process, Method of converting pig iron into wrought iron by
subjecting it to heat and frequent stirring in a furnace in the presence
of oxidizing substances (see oxidation-reduction). Invented by Henry
Cort in 1784 (superseding the finery process), it was the first method
that allowed wrought iron to be produced on a large scale.
 Puddling furnace

Cross section of puddling furnace: A the grate ; B the

hearth ; C a bridge to separate the fuel from the hearth;
D door way through which iron is fed and retrieved by the
puddler
 Wrought Iron
Wrought iron consists primary of iron with 1% to 2% slag,
silicon, phosphorus and sulfur.
To produce wrought iron, metalworking companies heat
and bend or work iron multiple times. After heating the
iron, a metalworking company will bend or work it using
a hammer. Next, they’ll reheat the iron, followed by
performing a second round of bending or working.
 Cast Iron vs. Wrought Iron

• Cast iron is made through casting, whereas wrought iron is

made by heating and bending or working iron multiple times.
As a result, most metalworking companies will agree that
cast iron is easier to produce than its wrought iron
counterpart.

• Wrought iron is also stronger than cast iron. Each time

wrought iron is heated and worked, it becomes a little
stronger. Because of its strength, wrought iron is often used
in commercial applications.

• Cast iron is harder than its counterpart. It’s able to resist

deformation under pressure or stress with greater ease than
wrought iron.
 Pig Iron 4% C

Oxidation using air blast

White Cast Iron

Wrought iron 0.04%C Cast Iron 2% C Grey Cast Iron Carbon Steel <1% C
Malleable cast Iron
Basic Oxygen Process

The Basic Oxygen is equipped with the water cooled oxygen lance
for blowing oxygen into the melt.
The basic oxygen converter uses no additional fuel. The pig iron
impurities (carbon, silicon, manganese and phosphorous) serve as
fuel.
The steel making process in the oxygen converter consists of:
• Charging steel scrap.
• Pouring liquid pig iron into the furnace.
• Charging fluxes.
• Oxygen blowing.
• Sampling and temperature measurement
• Tapping the steel to a ladle.
• De-slagging.
The iron impurities oxidize, evolving heat, necessary for the process.
The forming oxides and sulfur are absorbed by the slag.
The oxygen converter has a capacity up to 400 t and production
cycle of about 40 min.