First Exams 2025

A3.1 Diversity of
Organisms
Theme: Unity and Diversity

Level of Organisation: Organisms

SL and
HL
Combined
Content
SL and HL Content
From
IB Guiding Questions the IB

What is a species?
What patterns are seen in the diversity of genomes
within and between species?
SL and HL Content
From
SL & HL Content the IB

A3.1 Diversity of Organisms

A3.1.1: Variation between organisms as a defining feature of life
A3.1.2: Species as groups of organisms with shared traits
A3.1.3: Binomial system for naming organisms
A3.1.4: Biological species concept
A3.1.5: Difficulties distinguishing between populations and species due
to divergence of non-interbreeding populations during
speciation
SL and HL Content
From
SL & HL Content the IB

A3.1 Diversity of Organisms

A3.1.6: Diversity in chromosome numbers of plant and animal species
A3.1.7: Karyotyping and karyograms
A3.1.8: Unity and diversity of genomes within species
A3.1.9: Diversity of eukaryote genomes
A3.1.10: Comparison of genome sizes
A3.1.11: Current and potential future uses of whole genome sequencing
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SL & HL Key Terms

Variation Diploid Genome Size

Population Karyogram Genome Sequencing
Taxonomy Karyotype Genomics
Morphology Homologous Autosome
Chromosomes
Species Sex Chromosome
Genome
Binomial Nomenclature Telomere
Polymorphism
Speciation
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1.1: Variation between the IB

organisms as a defining feature of

life
Students should understand that no two individuals are identical in all
their traits. The patterns of variation are complex and are the basis for
naming and classifying organisms.
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Variation

Variation between
populations of
organisms is the
basis for naming and
classifying
organisms.

❓ Define variation
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Variation
Variation is the differences in traits
between individuals.

The patterns of variation are complex

and involve the interaction of
genetics with the environment.
No two individuals are identical in all
their traits.
There is variation within a species,
but there is more variation between
Variation between mustached frogs (Leptodactylus mystacinus)
different species.
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From
A3.1.2: Species as groups of the IB
organisms with shared traits

This is the original morphological concept of the species as used by

Linnaeus.
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Carolus Linnaeus - The Father of

Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the
science of classifying
organisms.
Carolus Linnaeus
developed a
classification system
based on morphology
(observable physical
traits) of organisms.
Read the linked article
on Linnaeus.
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Morphological Species Concept

The morphological
species concept
defines species as
groups of individuals
which are
morphologically
similar (similar traits)
to each other, and
morphologically
different from other
species.
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1.3: Binomial system for naming the IB

organisms

Students should know that the first part of the name identifies the
genus, with the second part of the name distinguishing the species.
Species in the same genus have similar traits. The genus name is given
an initial capital letter but the species name is lowercase.
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Binomial Nomenclature
All organisms are
given a scientific
name according to
Linnaeus’s system
of binomial
nomenclature.

❓ State the
scientific name
for humans.
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Binomial Nomenclature of Humans

All organisms are assigned a scientific name according to binomial
nomenclature. Scientific names are written in italics or underlined.
The scientific name for humans is:

The first part of our species name The second part of our species name,
is our genus Homo, and begins sapiens, distinguishes our species from
with an uppercase letter. other members of the genus Homo.
All members of a genus share The second part of the species name
similar traits. begins with a lowercase letter.
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Identify the two most closely

related species from the
following: Periophthalmus darwini and
a. Periophthalmus darwini
Periophthalmus barbarus are the
b. Ogcocephalus darwini most closely related species, as they
c. Periophthalmus barbarus have the same genus name, and will
share many of the same
d. Scomber scombrus
characteristics.

Periophthalmus darwini and Ogcocephalus darwini are not closely related

species, as they do not share the same genus, even though they share
the same second part of their species names.
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1.4: Biological species concept the IB

According to the biological species concept, a species is a group of

organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.
Include possible challenges associated with this definition of a species
and that competing species definitions exist.
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Biological Species Concept

The biological species

concept has replaced
the morphological
species concept.

❓ Define species
according to the
biological species
concept.
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Biological Species Concept

A species is a group of
organisms capable of
reproducing with each
other to produce fertile
offspring.
Organisms may have
similar characteristics,
but if they are not
capable of reproducing
with each other, they
are considered to be
different species.
SL and HL Content
From
the IB
A3.1.5: Difficulties distinguishing
between populations and species
due to divergence of non-
interbreeding populations during
speciation
Students should understand that speciation is the splitting of one
species into two or more. It usually happens gradually rather than by a
single act, with populations becoming more and more different in their
traits. It can therefore be an arbitrary decision whether two populations
are regarded as the same or different species.
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Populations and Speciation

A population is a group of the same species in the same place at the
same time.
Speciation is the splitting of one species into two or more species.
If a population of a species becomes reproductively isolated into two
separate populations (groups are unable to meet and reproduce), they
may gradually evolve into separate species, as the different populations
evolve different traits over time.
It is an arbitrary decision, whether two populations are regarded as the
same or different species, since they do not meet to reproduce in nature.
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1.6: Diversity in chromosome the IB
numbers of plant and animal
species
Students should know in general that diversity exists. As an example,
students should know that humans have 46 chromosomes and
chimpanzees have 48. Students are not required to know other specific
chromosome numbers but should appreciate that diploid cells have an
even number of chromosomes.
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Diploid Chromosome Number in

Eukaryotes
Diploid eukaryotic cells will have two complete sets of chromosomes in
their nucleus, resulting in an even number of chromosomes in each cell.
There is great diversity in the number of chromosomes found in the cells
of different species.
Jack Jumper ants (Myrmecia pilosula) have a diploid chromosome
number of 2.
Black mulberry plants (Morus nigra) have a diploid chromosome number
of 308.
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State the Diploid Number of

Chromosomes for the following Species
(Research may be required)

Homo sapiens Pan Canis

Human troglodytes familiaris 78
46 Chimpanzee 48 Dog

IB Biology students should know the diploid chromosome number for

humans and chimpanzees.
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1.7: Karyotyping and karyograms the IB

Application of skills: Students should be able to classify chromosomes

by banding patterns, length and centromere position. Students should
evaluate the evidence for the hypothesis that chromosome 2 in humans
arose from the fusion of chromosomes 12 and 13 with a shared primate
ancestor.
Nature of Science: Students should be able to distinguish between
testable hypotheses such as the origin of chromosome 2 and non-
testable statements.
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Karyotypes and Karyograms

A karyotype is the number and type of
chromosomes found in a cell.
Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes, and 2
sex chromosomes.
A karyogram is a diagram or a photo of the
chromosomes found in a cell.
In a karyogram, chromosomes are organized
into homologous pairs of chromosomes.
Homologous chromosomes have the same Human karyogram
sequence of genes, and are the same length.
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The Biology Project’s Karyotyping

Activity
Read the introduction to the karyotyping
activity on the Biology Project’s website and
answer the following::

❓ List the features of chromosomes which

are used to identify homologous
chromosomes during karyotyping.

Chromosomes in a karyogram are organized according to length. The longest

chromosome is known as Chromosome 1.
In humans, the shortest chromosome is Chromosome 22.
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The Biology Project’s Karyotyping

Activity
Continue to the Patient Histories, and
Complete Patient A’s Karyotype.
Match the chromosomes to complete
the karyogram.
❓ Analyse the karyogram to:
1. Identify, with reason, the gender of
Patient A.
2. Identify, with reason, the
chromosomal abnormality for
Patient A Karyogram
Patient A.
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Analysing Karyograms
❓ Analyse the karyogram to determine the gender of the individual,
and identify any chromosomal abnormalities.

The karyotype is for a male as

there is one X chromosome and
one Y chromosome.
The individual has three copies of
Chromosome 18 (Trisomy 18)

Human Karyogram
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Analysing Karyograms
❓ Analyse the karyogram to determine the gender of the individual,
and identify any chromosomal abnormalities.

The karyotype is for a female as

there are two X chromosomes.
The individual has three copies of
Chromosome 13 (Trisomy 13)

Human Karyogram
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Origin of Human Chromosome 2

Chimpanzees are humans’ closest relative, therefore it is surprising that

chimpanzees (and other members of our taxonomic family such as
gorillas and orangutans) have 24 pairs of chromosomes, but humans
have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
The working hypothesis is that two ancestral chromosomes fused to
form Chromosome 2 in human ancestors, after they had diverged from
our common ancestor with chimpanzees.
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Origin of Human Chromosome 2

Scientists can test the
hypothesis that
human Chromosome 2
was formed by the
fusion of two smaller
chromosomes.
Read the linked article
on Chromosome 2,
paying close attention
to the final paragraph.
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Evidence for the Origin of Chromosome

2
Evidence for the fusion of two chromosomes to form human Chromosome 2
includes:
● Human Chromosome 2 is the same length as Chromosome 2A and
Chromosome 2B in chimpanzees.
● A vestigial telomere is found within human Chromosome 2, suggesting the
fusion site for Chromosomes 2A and 2B.
● The sequence of genes on human Chromosome 2 matches the sequence
of genes on the chimpanzee Chromosomes 2A and 2B.
● The banding pattern formed when human Chromosome 2 is dyed matches
the banding pattern on the chimpanzee Chromosomes 2A and 2B.
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1.8: Unity and diversity of the IB

genomes within species

Students should understand that the genome is all the genetic

information of an organism. Organisms in the same species share most
of their genome but variations such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms
give some diversity.
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Genomes
A genome includes
all of the genetic
information of an
organism.
The genome
provides all of the
information for the
growth and
development of the
cell and organism.
SL and HL Content

Genomes

The human genome consists of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the

nucleus, and the chromosome found in mitochondria.
Organisms in the same species share most of their genome, but
variation exists in the form of single-nucleotide polymorphisms.
Polymorphism refers to the existence of multiple forms of a particular
trait or characteristic within a species.
Polymorphisms can result from single-nucleotide base substitution
mutations.
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1.9: Diversity of eukaryote the IB

genomes

Genomes vary in overall size, which is determined by the total amount

of DNA. Genomes also vary in base sequence. Variation between species
is much larger than variation within a species.
 Genome

A genome is all
of the DNA
(genetic
information) in a
cell.
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Diversity of Eukaryote Genomes

Genome size is the total amount of DNA There is a wide variety of
in a cell. genome sizes in organisms
Genomes size is measured in nitrogen
base pairs (bp) which form the bonds
between the two strands of DNA.
Usually genome sizes are measured in:
● Kilobases (1kb = 1000bp)
● Megabases (1Mb = 1,000,000bp).
● Gigabases (1Gb = 1,000,000,000bp)

Gene Sizes of Organisms

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Diversity of Eukaryote Genomes

The genomes size of different species (and viruses) vary, ranging from
0.0485 Mb for the lambda bacteriophage virus to 150,000 Mb for the
plant Paris Japonica.
Read the linked article on genome sizes

The nucleotide base sequence of a genome varies between all

individuals.
However, nucleotide base sequence variation between individuals from
different species is much greater than for individuals from the same
species.
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From
A3.1.10: Comparison of genome the IB

sizes
Application of skills: Students should extract information about genome
size for different taxonomic groups from a database to compare genome
size to organism complexity.
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Determining Genome Sizes

The
National Library for
Medicine
maintains a database
on the genomes of
many species.
It is possible to use
this database to
determine the
genome size of many
species.
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Determining Genome Sizes

❓ Complete the table by determining the genome size of the following
(using the NIH database):

Scientific Name Common Name Genome Size

Virus Influenza A Virus Flu Virus
Bacteria Escheria coli E. coli
Animal Drosophila melanogaster Fruit fly
Animal Homo sapiens Human
Plant Picea sitchensis Sitka spruce
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Determining Genome Sizes

Scientific Name Common Name Genome Size
Virus Influenza A Virus Flu Virus 13.2 kb
Bacteria Escheria coli E. coli 5.6 Mb
Animal Drosophila melanogaster Fruit fly 143.7 Mb
Animal Homo sapiens Human 3.1 Gb
Plant Picea sitchensis Sitka spruce 20.5 Gb

There is a clear increase in genome size from viruses, to bacteria to eukaryotes.

However, there is a wide range of genome sizes for eukaryotes.
 Genome Size and Organism
Complexity
There is a clear increase in genome size
from viruses, to bacteria to eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes are more complex than
viruses, and require more genetic
information.
Eukaryotic organisms require more
genetic information than prokaryotes.
However, there is a wide range of
genome sizes for eukaryotes, as seen in
the graph. Gene Sizes of Organisms
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1.11: Current and potential the IB

future uses of whole genome

sequencing
Include the increasing speed and decreasing costs. For current uses,
include research into evolutionary relationships and for potential future
uses, include personalized medicine.
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Genome Sequencing
Genome sequencing
determines the
entire genetic
makeup of an
organism.
Improving
technology is
reducing the cost
and time of
sequencing
genomes.
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Genome Sequencing and Evolution

Scientists have sequenced the
genomes of thousands of organisms.
By analyzing the evolutionary
relationships between species and
the corresponding differences in
their DNA, scientists can better
understand how the appearance,
behavior and biology of living things Comparative Genomics
have changed over time. (
Comparative Genomics Fact Sheet) Read the linked article on comparative
genomics.
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Genome Sequencing and Personalized

Medicine
Personalized
medicine takes
into account an
individual’s genetic
makeup to provide
targeted and
effective medical
treatment.
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Benefits of Personalized Medicine

Read the linked article on the benefits of personalized medicine.

Benefits of personalized medicine include:

1. Diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases through the
identification of genetic mutations. The focus of treatment can shift
from prevention rather than reaction to illnesses.
2. Prescribe more effective drugs, with fewer side-effects, based on a
person’s genome.
3. Reduces trial and error prescription of medicines, through identifying
more targeted medications.
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Review and Discuss: SL & HL Key

Terms
Variation Diploid Genome Size
Population Karyogram Genome Sequencing
Taxonomy Karyotype Genomics
Morphology Homologous Autosome
Chromosomes
Species Sex Chromosome
Genome
Binomial Nomenclature Telomere
Polymorphism
Speciation
SL and HL Content
From
A3.1 Diversity of Organisms - IB the IB

Linking Questions

What might cause a species to persist or go extinct?

How do species exemplify both continuous and discontinuous patterns
of variation?