Lecture 1: Introduction to

Environmental Science
 What is Environmental Science?
• Derived from French word "Environ"
meaning "surrounding"
• Interdisciplinary field integrating physical
and biological sciences
• Studies the environment and
environmental problems
• Includes biotic factors (living organisms)
and abiotic factors (non-living elements)
• Encompasses four main systems:
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere,
and biosphere
 Components of the Environment
• Hydrosphere: All water bodies (lakes, rivers, oceans)
• Lithosphere: Earth's crust (soil, rocks, mountains)
• Atmosphere: Air envelope around Earth
• Biosphere: All living organisms and their interactions
Question: Which component of the environment includes the water cycle?
 The Hydrosphere
• Includes all water bodies on Earth
• Functions in a cyclic nature (hydrological cycle or water cycle)
• Crucial for life on Earth
• Interacts with other environmental components
 The Lithosphere
• Mantle of rocks constituting Earth's crust
• Divided into three layers: crust, mantle, and core
• Contains soil, rocks, and mountains
• Provides resources and habitats for living organisms
 The Atmosphere
• Thin layer of gases surrounding Earth
• Protects Earth from harmful solar radiation
• Composed of five concentric layers:
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
• Exosphere
 The Biosphere
• Also known as the "life layer"
• Encompasses all living organisms on
Earth
• Includes interactions between organisms
and their environment
• Ranges from microscopic organisms to
large mammals
• Biodiversity depends on factors like
rainfall, temperature, and geography
Question: What are the four main
components of the environment?
 Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental
• Studies
Integrates various scientific disciplines:
• Ecology
• Physics
• Chemistry
• Biology
• Soil Science
• Geology
• Atmospheric Science
• Geography
• Provides a holistic approach to studying environmental systems
• Incorporates social sciences for understanding human-environment
relationships
 Related Fields of Study
• Environmental Studies
• Focuses on human relationships with the environment
• Incorporates social sciences and humanities
• Environmental Engineering
• Emphasizes design and technology for improving environmental quality
• Focuses on practical solutions to environmental problems
 Scope of Environmental Science
• Multidisciplinary nature offers diverse career opportunities
• Addresses various environmental issues:
• Pollution control
• Biodiversity conservation
• Waste management
• Natural resource conservation
 Applications of Environmental Science
• Ecosystem Structure and Function
• Natural Resource Conservation
• Environmental Pollution Control
• Environmental Management
• Industrial Environmental Research
• Research and Development
• Social Development (NGOs)
 Environmental Science in Industry
• Many industries have dedicated environmental R&D sections
• Focus on reducing environmental impact
• Trend towards manufacturing "green" products
• Opportunities in:
• Pollution control
• Waste management
• Ecological balance maintenance
• Biodiversity conservation
 Research and Development in
• Environmental
Growing public awareness Science
drives research opportunities
• Universities and government organizations conduct studies on:
• Monitoring and controlling pollution sources
• Reducing greenhouse gases
• Developing renewable energy resources
• Increasing focus on climate change and its impacts
 Importance of Environmental Science
• Addresses global environmental issues
• Tackles problems arising from development
• Manages increasing pollution levels
• Aims to prevent environmental degradation
• Promotes sustainable development
 Environmental Issues of International
• Global warming Importance
• Ozone depletion
• Acid rain
• Marine pollution
• Biodiversity loss
These issues require
international cooperation and
efforts to address effectively.
 Challenges in Environmental Science
• Population growth
• Urbanization
• Industrial development
• Resource depletion
• Pollution management
• Balancing development with environmental protection
 Need for Public Awareness
• Essential to educate the public about environmental degradation
• Promotes eco-friendly behaviors and decisions
• Helps address key challenges:
• Growing population
• Poverty
• Resource management
• Sustainable development
 Environmental Challenges in Developing
• Rapid population growth Countries
• Poverty-environment nexus
• Resource depletion
• Balancing development with environmental protection
• Need for sustainable practices and policies
 Future of Environmental Science
• Increasing importance in policy-making
• Growing job opportunities in various sectors
• Emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches
• Focus on sustainable technologies and practices
• Crucial role in addressing global environmental challenges
 Agricultural Growth and Environmental
• Challenges
Need for sustainable agricultural practices
• Issues with high-yielding varieties:
• Soil salinity
• Damage to soil structure
• Balancing food production with environmental protection
 Water Resources: Challenges and
• Conservation
Groundwater depletion and contamination
• Factors affecting water quality:
• Community wastes
• Industrial effluents
• Chemical fertilizers and pesticides
• Restoration of water bodies (rivers, lakes)
• Strategies for water conservation and safe drinking water
 Forests and Development
• Importance of forests as river catchments
• Conflicts between development projects and forest conservation
• Impacts of large irrigation projects:
• Forest submergence
• Displacement of local people
• Damage to flora and fauna
 Natural Resources: Classification and
• Importance
Definition: Naturally occurring substances valuable in their unmodified form
• Types of natural resources:
• Renewable resources (inexhaustible)
• Non-renewable resources (exhaustible)
• Examples: water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops, wildlife
 Renewable vs. Non-renewable Resources
Renewable Resources:
• Can maintain or replace themselves if managed wisely
• Examples: solar energy, wind, water, forests
Non-renewable Resources:
• Once used, they are lost forever
• Examples: metallic minerals, fossil fuels
• Estimated depletion times:
• Industrial metals: less than a century
• Petroleum and natural gas: 15-20 years
 Natural Resources: Associated Problems
• Population growth leading to increased demand
• Overutilization of resources
• Imbalance between resource use and conservation
• Regional issues:
• Water logging due to over-irrigation
• Water scarcity for industry and agriculture
Question: What is the main difference between renewable and non-renewable
resources?
 Forest Resources: Importance and
• Functions
Cover approximately 1/3 of Earth's total
land area
• Ecological importance:
• Earth's lungs (CO2 absorption, O2
release)
• Reduce global warming
• Maintain hydrological cycle
• Reduce soil erosion
• Economic importance:
• Timber, fodder, firewood, bamboo,
rubber, medicines, gums, resins, food
items
 Uses of Forests
• Watershed protection
• Atmospheric regulation
• Erosion control
• Land bank (soil nutrient maintenance)
• Local use (consumptive)
• Market use (productive)
 Forest Products and Their Uses
Local Use (Consumptive):
• Food (plants, fish, game)
• Fodder for cattle
• Fuel wood and charcoal
• Building materials
• Fiber for weaving
• Sericulture and apiculture
• Medicinal plants
Market Use (Productive):
• Minor forest produce (non-wood products)
• Major timber extraction
 Overexploitation of Forests
• Causes:
• Large-scale logging for raw materials
• Deforestation due to road construction
• Agricultural land expansion
• Mining activities
• Hydroelectric projects
• Solution approach:
• Joint Forest Management (community participation)
 Deforestation: Definition and Scope
• Permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands
• Does not include removal of industrial forests (e.g., plantations)
• Current state:
• Indigenous forests cover 21% of Earth's land surface
• 12 million hectares cleared annually
• 80% of original forests already cleared
 Major Causes of Deforestation
• Shifting cultivation
• Fuel wood requirements
• Raw materials for industrial use
• Development projects
• Growing food needs
• Overgrazing
• Conversion to agricultural land
 Timber Extraction and Its Impact
• Steps in timber extraction:
• Clear felling
• Mechanized logging
• Manual logging
• Selective logging
• Impacts:
• Damage to surrounding trees and vegetation
• Road construction causing further forest destruction
 Mining and Its Effects on Forests
• Types of mining:
• Surface mining (shallow deposits)
• Sub-surface mining (deep deposits)
• Impacts:
• Removal of vegetation
• Destruction of soil and rock layers
• Defacing topography and landscape
 Dams and Their Effects on Forests and
• Tribal
Hydroelectric dams as a major cause People
of
deforestation
• Current status: 40,000 large dams obstructing
worldwide rivers
• Impacts:
• Alteration of ecological balance
• Increased risk of landslides, droughts, and
floods
• Socio-economic problems for tribal and native
people
• Health hazards for dam construction workers
• Human rights violations related to dam
building
 Water Resources
• Definition: Sources of water that are
useful or potentially useful
• Uses: Agricultural, industrial, household,
recreational, and environmental activities
• Distribution on Earth:
• 97% salt water
• 3% fresh water (2/3 frozen in glaciers
and polar ice caps)
• Types of fresh water:
• Ground water (9.86% of total fresh
water)
• Surface water
 Uses of Water
• Domestic use
• Industrial use
• Public use
• Fire use
• Irrigation
• Hydroelectric power generation
 Over-utilization of Ground and Surface
• Effects of overuse: Water
• Lowering of water table
• Ground subsidence
• Drought
• Reasons for water shortage:
• Population increase
• Increasing demand
• Unequal distribution
• Increasing pollution
 Types of Drought
• Meteorological drought: Related to rainfall amounts
• Hydrological drought: Determined by water levels in reservoirs
• Agricultural drought: Related to water availability for crops
• Socioeconomic drought: Related to demand and supply of economic goods
 Floods
• Definition: Overflow of water that
submerges normally dry land
• Causes:
• Overflow from water bodies
• Accumulation of rainwater on
saturated ground
• River flow rate exceeding channel
capacity
• Impacts: Damage to homes and
businesses in flood plains
 Water Conflicts
• Definition: Conflicts between countries, states, or groups over access to water
resources
• Reasons for conflicts:
• Territorial disputes
• Fight for resources
• Strategic advantage
• Most conflicts occur over freshwater resources
 Dams - Benefits and Problems
• Benefits:
• Flood and famine control
• Electricity generation
• Irrigation
• Drinking water supply
• Navigation and fishery promotion
• Problems:
• River fragmentation and transformation
• Impacts on riverine ecosystems
• Displacement of people
• Water logging and salinization
• Disruption of animal habitats and migration routes
 Mineral Resources
• Definition: Naturally occurring substances with definite chemical composition
and identifiable physical properties
• Formation: Geological processes over millions of years
• Types:
• Metallic: Iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese, copper
• Non-metallic: Coal, salt, clay, cement, silica
• Building materials: Granite, marble, limestone
• Gems: Diamonds, emeralds, rubies
• Precious metals: Gold, silver, platinum
• Fossil fuels: Oil, gas, coal
 Uses of Minerals
• Energy generation (coal, uranium)
• Jewelry (gold, silver, platinum, diamonds)
• Power transmission (copper, aluminum)
• Medicine (some minerals used in Ayurveda)
• Industrial applications
 Mining Process
• Stages of mining:
• Prospecting: Searching for minerals
• Exploration: Assessing size, shape, and location
• Development: Preparing access to the deposit
• Exploitation: Extracting minerals from mines
• Types of mining:
• Surface mining (open-cut or strip mines)
• Deep or shaft mining
Environmental and Social Impacts of Mining
• Displacement of indigenous and tribal peoples
• Disproportionate negative impacts on vulnerable populations
• Disruption of ecosystems and wildlife habitats
• Potential water and soil pollution
 Types of Mining
Surface Mining
• Used for mineral ores close to Earth's surface
• Involves removing soil and rocks over the ore by blasting
Types:
• Open-pit mining
• Strip mining
• Quarrying
Underground Mining
• Used for ores deep in Earth's surface
• More expensive and dangerous than surface mining
• Requires tunnels, fresh air, and lighting systems
 Environmental Effects of Mining
• Negative impacts on the environment:
• Air pollution
• Noise pollution
• Water pollution
• Loss of wildlife habitat
• Toxic substance concentration in tailing ponds
• Dust spreading
• Health risks for miners:
• Respiratory system diseases
• Skin diseases
• Buckling of roads
• Bending of rail tracks
 Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
• Also known as Acid Rock Drainage (ARD)
• Outflow of acidic water from abandoned mines
• Can occur in:
• Metal mines
• Coal mines
• Construction sites
• Subdivisions
• Transportation corridors
 Food Resources
Main sources of human food:
• Plants:
• Cereals (wheat, barley, rice, corn)
• Pulses (peas, red grams, green grams)
• Vegetables (carrot, cauliflower, beans)
• Fruits (banana, orange, grapes)
• Spices (pepper, cloves)
• Animals:
• Milk
• Butter
• Eggs
• Meat
 World Food Problems
• Increasing population and food demand
• Food production has increased, but not enough to match population growth
• Complex issues:
• Food production
• Population increase
• Prevalence of poverty
• Environmental impacts
• Green Revolution:
• Developed by Norman Borlaug
• High-yielding variety of wheat
 Agricultural Systems
• Traditional System:
• Traditional Subsistence Agriculture (TSA)
• Traditional Intensive Agriculture (TIA)
• Modern and Industrialized System:
• Large-scale farming
• Heavy use of fuel, energy, water, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides
• Focus on single crops for sale
 Environmental Impacts of Modern
• Agriculture
Groundwater contamination with nitrates
• Algal blooming and eutrophication
• Pesticide accumulation in food chains
• Soil salinization
• Increased fuel consumption and air pollution
• Depletion of underground aquifers
• Water logging
• Soil erosion
 Water Logging and Salinity
Water Logging:
• Saturation of soil with water
• Prevents air from reaching plant roots
• Affects crop growth and yield
Salinity:
• Increased salt content in soil
• Causes:
• Natural processes (mineral weathering)
• Artificial processes (irrigation)
• Impacts crop growth and soil fertility
 Overgrazing
Definition: Intensive grazing for extended periods without sufficient recovery
• Causes:
• Poorly managed livestock
• Overpopulation of native or non-native animals
• Effects:
• Reduced land usefulness and productivity
• Decreased biodiversity
• Desertification and erosion
• Spread of invasive species and weeds
• Soil fertility loss
 Energy Resources
Definition: Capacity to do work
• Forms: Mechanical, thermal, chemical, biological
• Importance:
• Economic growth
• Industrial development
• Agriculture
• Transport
• Domestic requirements
 Types of Energy Resources
Non-renewable Energy Resources:
• Coal
• Crude oil
• Natural gas
Renewable Energy Resources:
• Solar energy
• Wind energy
• Hydropower
• Geothermal energy
Nuclear Energy
 Fossil Fuels
Coal:
• Formed from plant materials over millions of years
• Extracted through mining
• Environmental concerns: CO2 emissions, global warming
Crude Oil:
• Liquid form of fossil fuel
• Refined to produce various petroleum products
• Used in manufacturing and transportation
Natural Gas:
• Trapped in sedimentary formations
• Lower CO2 emissions compared to coal and oil
• Estimated 734 billion cubic meters of proven reserves
 Renewable Energy Resources
Solar Energy:
• Derived from the sun
• Used for direct heating or electricity generation
• Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity
Other Renewable Sources:
• Wind energy
• Hydropower
• Geothermal energy
Benefits:
• Constantly replaced
• Generally less polluting than fossil fuels
 Solar Energy Applications
• Water heating
• Cooking
• Water pumping
• Powering machines
• Street lighting
• Railway signals
Challenge: Less energy available during cloudy weather
 How Solar Power Works
• Photovoltaic (PV) cells:
• Made primarily of silicon
• Convert sunlight directly into electricity
• DC electricity converted to AC via power inverter
• Solar thermal collectors:
• Use heat-absorbing panels and circulation tubes
• Heat water or buildings
• Solar concentration systems:
• Use mirrors to focus sunlight
• Heat water or transfer fluid to generate steam
• Steam used to spin turbines and generate electricity
• Passive solar design:
• Creative use of windows, skylights, and building orientation
 Hydro-Power Energy
• Electrical power generated by hydro-electric projects
• Dams constructed across rivers
• Kinetic energy of water converted to mechanical energy via turbines
• Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy via generators
Environmental concerns:
• Destruction of animal habitats
• Deforestation
• Forced migration of people
 Geothermal Energy
• Found within rock formations
• Temperature inside Earth's crust
around 4000°C
• Examples: Geysers and hot springs
• Steam tapped by drilling used to
generate power
Challenges:
• Air pollution from gases like H2S,
NH3, CO2
• Low overall efficiency (15%)
compared to fossil fuels (40%)
 Wind Energy
• Kinetic energy from atmospheric air movement
• Windmills convert wind energy to electrical energy
• Efficiency: 30-40% at steady wind speed of 8.5 m/s
• Efficiency increases with wind speed and rotor blade length
 Merits and Demerits of Wind Energy
Merits:
• Non-polluting and environmentally friendly
• Renewable and free energy source
• Cheaper power generation with no recurring expenses
• Suitable for remote and rural areas
• Favorable for locations away from cities
Demerits:
• Complex design, manufacturing, and installation due to varying
atmospheric conditions
• Not suitable for large-scale generation
 Ocean Energy
Types of ocean energy:
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC):
• Uses temperature difference between surface and deep water
• Converts heat into electricity
• Tidal Energy:
• Uses tidal waves to turn turbines and generate electricity
Benefits:
• Non-polluting nature
• Renewable energy source
 Biomass Energy
• Renewable energy source derived from organic materials
• Sources: Wood, animal manure, sugarcane waste, agricultural crops,
household waste, plant roots, garbage
• Simplest use: Drying in sun and burning
 Biogas
• Sustainable energy source from organic wastes
• Composition: Methane (68%), CO2 (31%), N2 (1%)
• Calorific value: 4400-6200 Kilocalories/cum
• Production in enclosed biogas plants
• Applications: Cooking gas, lighting, water pumping
 Nuclear Energy
• Non-renewable energy source
• Released during fission or fusion of
radioactive elements
• Advantage: Enormous energy from small
quantity of material
• Example: 1 kg Uranium ≈ 30,000 kg coal
energy
Types of nuclear reactions:
• Nuclear Fission: Splitting nucleus with
neutrons
• Nuclear Fusion: Combining hydrogen
atoms to form helium
Environmental concern: Disposal of nuclear
waste
 Alternative Energy Sources
Definition: Any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuelsGoals:
• Address concerns about fossil fuel use
• Reduce carbon dioxide emissions
• Mitigate global warming
Types of alternative energy:
• Solar energy
• Wind energy
• Geothermal energy
• Biofuel and Ethanol
• Nuclear energy
• Hydrogen fuel
 Land Resources
• Landforms: hills, valleys, plains, river basins, wetlands
• Renewable if utilized carefully
• Non-renewable if contaminated with toxic industrial or nuclear waste
Importance of land conservation:
• Tree and grass roots bind soil
• Deforestation and overgrazing lead to unproductive wasteland
• Intensive irrigation can cause water logging and salinization
 Land Degradation
Definition: Any change in land that alters its condition or reduces its
qualityCauses:
• Natural disasters: volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, heavy rains, fire
• Human-induced activities
• Wind erosion
• Water salinity
• Water logging
• Soil acidity
• Loss of flora and fauna
 Desertification
• Land degradation in arid and semi-arid regions
• Affects 40% of Earth's surface
• Puts over 1 billion people at risk
Human activities leading to land degradation:
• Land clearing and deforestation
• Mining in forest areas
• Urban conversion
• Expanding cultivation
• Soil pollution
• Loss of organic matter in soils
• Alkalinization and salinization of soils
 Soil Conservation Methods
• Contour farming:
• Preparing land with alternate furrows and ridges at the
same level
• Reduces runoff and erosion
• Mulching:
• Using plant stems as mulch to reduce soil moisture
evaporation
• Crop rotation:
• Alternating crops to prevent nutrient depletion
• Cultivating legumes after regular crops
• Strip cropping:
• Planting crops in rows or strips along contours to check
water flow
 Landslides
Definition: Downward movement of rocks, debris, and soil due to gravitational
forcesCauses:
• Steep slopes
• Surface runoff
• Changes in drainage
• Rainfall
• Earthquakes
• Volcanic activity
• Changes in groundwater movement
Human-induced landslides:
• Building excavations
• Mining collapses
 Soil Erosion
Causes:
• Deforestation:
• Mining, industrial development, urban expansion
• Leads to exposure of land to wind and rain
• Overgrazing:
• Exhausts grass cover
• Exposes land to wind and rain erosion
 Desertification
• Definition: Desertification is the process that turns productive land into non-
productive desert due to poor land management.
• Occurs mainly in semi-arid areas (annual rainfall < 600 mm) bordering deserts.
 Causes of Desertification
• Overgrazing: Major cause worldwide
• Disrupts natural grazing patterns of semi-arid ecosystems
• Cultivation of marginal lands
• High risk of crop failure and low economic return
• Vegetation destruction for fuelwood
• Poor management after accidental burning
• Incorrect irrigation practices
• Can lead to soil salinization
• Human factors
• Population growth and poverty
• Social importance of livestock
 Effects of Desertification
• Reduced land ability to support life
• Impacts wild species, domestic animals, crops, and people
• Accelerated soil erosion
• South Africa loses 300-400 million tonnes of topsoil annually
• Decreased water retention
• Leads to plant die-off and reduced soil nutrients
• Increased flood frequency and severity
• Self-reinforcing process
• Creates conditions for continual deterioration
 Conservation Strategies
• Water Conservation
• Install water-saving fixtures
• Reuse greywater for gardening
• Capture rainwater
• Energy Conservation
• Use renewable energy sources
• Promote energy-efficient practices
• Soil Protection
• Grow diverse plants and use compost
• Implement proper irrigation techniques
• Sustainable Agriculture
• Use organic fertilizers and drip irrigation
• Eat local and seasonal produce
QUESTIONS???