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Sql
ALTER TABLE (Modifying Tables)
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype; Change coloumn name ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name new_datatype;
Add primary key to a relation
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD PRIMARY KEY (Coloumn name);
Add foreign key to a relation
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD FOREIGN KEY(attribute name) REFERENCES referenced_table_name (attribute name); Add constraint UNIQUE to an existing attribute ALTER TABLE table_name ADD UNIQUE (attribute name);
Add an attribute to an existing table
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD attribute name DATATYPE;
Modify datatype of an attribute
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY attribute DATATYPE;
Modify constraint of an attribute
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY attribute DATATYPE NOT NULL;
Remove an attribute ALTER TABLE table_name DROP attribute; Remove primary key from the table ALTER TABLE table_name DROP PRIMARY KEY; Renaming of columns ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME COLUMN old_column_name TO new_column_name;
WHERE Clause The WHERE clause filters rows based on specified conditions within a SQL query. SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Ex: SELECT * FROM employees WHERE salary > 50000; ORDER BY Clause The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the result set of a query either in ascending (default) or descending order based on one or more columns. SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name ORDER BY column1 [ASC|DESC], column2 [ASC|DESC], ...; Ex: SELECT emp_name, salary FROM employees ORDER BY salary DESC;
We can also use ORDER BY and WHERE clause together like :
SELECT emp_name, salary FROM employees WHERE salary > 50000 ORDER BY salary DESC; Substring pattern matching In SQL, substring pattern matching refers to finding or extracting parts of a string that match a specific pattern. This is commonly achieved using various string functions and operators available in SQL. Pattern Matching Functions and Operators: 1. LIKE Operator: The LIKE operator is used to match patterns in a string column. It allows the use of wildcards: % (percent sign): Represents zero or more characters. _ (underscore): Represents a single character. Example: Let's say you want to retrieve all names from the employees table that start with the letter 'J':
SELECT emp_name FROM employees WHERE emp_name LIKE 'J%'; 2. SUBSTRING() Function: The SUBSTRING() function extracts a substring from a string. Example: If you want to extract a part of a string from the description column starting at position 3 and including the next 5 characters:
SELECT SUBSTRING(description, 3, 5) AS extracted_text
FROM your_table; Operations of Relation in Sql In SQL, operations on relations (tables) are fundamental for manipulating and querying data within a relational database. Some common operations include: 1. Selection The selection operation retrieves rows from a table that satisfy a specified condition using the SELECT statement and the WHERE clause. Example: Retrieve all rows from the employees table where the department is 'Sales': SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = 'Sales'; 2. Projection Projection retrieves specific columns from a table using the SELECT statement to focus only on the required columns. Example: Retrieve only the emp_name and salary columns from the employees table: SELECT emp_name, salary FROM employees; 3. Union The UNION operator combines the result sets of two or more SELECT statements, removing duplicates by default. Example: Combine the results of two queries into a single result set:
SELECT emp_name FROM employees WHERE department = 'Sales' UNION SELECT emp_name FROM employees WHERE department = 'Marketing';
4. Intersection The INTERSECT operator returns the common rows between the result sets of two or more SELECT statements. Example: Retrieve the employees who are in both 'Sales' and 'Marketing' departments:
SELECT emp_name FROM employees WHERE department = 'Sales' INTERSECT SELECT emp_name FROM employees WHERE department = 'Marketing'; 5. Difference The EXCEPT or MINUS operator returns rows from the first query that are not present in the result set of the second query. Example: Retrieve employees who are in 'Sales' but not in 'Marketing': SELECT emp_name FROM employees WHERE department = 'Sales' EXCEPT SELECT emp_name FROM employees WHERE department = 'Marketing'; 6. Join Joins combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column between them. Example: Retrieve information from two tables (employees and departments) based on a common column (department_id): SELECT e.emp_name, d.department_name FROM employees e INNER JOIN departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id; Write all the single row, multiple row , aggregate functions ,description and their examples with output from page no 158,161,162,164,166.
