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SQL Extra

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14 views11 pages

SQL Extra

Uploaded by

gnumber019
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Sql

ALTER TABLE (Modifying Tables)


ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype;
Change coloumn name
ALTER TABLE table_name
ALTER COLUMN column_name new_datatype;

Add primary key to a relation


ALTER TABLE table_name ADD PRIMARY KEY (Coloumn name);

Add foreign key to a relation


ALTER TABLE table_name ADD FOREIGN KEY(attribute name)
REFERENCES referenced_table_name (attribute name);
Add constraint UNIQUE to an existing
attribute
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD UNIQUE (attribute name);

Add an attribute to an existing table


ALTER TABLE table_name ADD attribute name DATATYPE;

Modify datatype of an attribute


ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY attribute DATATYPE;

Modify constraint of an attribute


ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY attribute DATATYPE NOT NULL;

Remove an attribute
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP attribute;
Remove primary key from the table
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP PRIMARY KEY;
Renaming of columns
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME COLUMN old_column_name TO new_column_name;

WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause filters rows based on specified conditions within a
SQL query.
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Ex:
SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 50000;
ORDER BY Clause
The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the result set of a query either
in ascending (default) or descending order based on one or more
columns.
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1 [ASC|DESC], column2 [ASC|DESC], ...;
Ex: SELECT emp_name, salary
FROM employees
ORDER BY salary DESC;

We can also use ORDER BY and WHERE clause together like :


SELECT emp_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 50000
ORDER BY salary DESC;
Substring pattern matching
In SQL, substring pattern matching refers to finding or extracting parts
of a string that match a specific pattern. This is commonly achieved
using various string functions and operators available in SQL.
Pattern Matching Functions and Operators:
1. LIKE Operator:
The LIKE operator is used to match patterns in a string column. It
allows the use of wildcards:
% (percent sign): Represents zero or more characters.
_ (underscore): Represents a single character.
Example:
Let's say you want to retrieve all names from the employees table that
start with the letter 'J':

SELECT emp_name
FROM employees
WHERE emp_name LIKE 'J%';
2. SUBSTRING() Function:
The SUBSTRING() function extracts a substring from a string.
Example:
If you want to extract a part of a string from the description column
starting at position 3 and including the next 5 characters:

SELECT SUBSTRING(description, 3, 5) AS extracted_text


FROM your_table;
Operations of Relation in
Sql
In SQL, operations on relations (tables) are fundamental for manipulating
and querying data within a relational database. Some common
operations include:
1. Selection
The selection operation retrieves rows from a table that satisfy a specified
condition using the SELECT statement and the WHERE clause.
Example:
Retrieve all rows from the employees table where the department is 'Sales':
SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE department = 'Sales';
2. Projection
Projection retrieves specific columns from a table using the SELECT
statement to focus only on the required columns.
Example:
Retrieve only the emp_name and salary columns from the employees table:
SELECT emp_name, salary
FROM employees;
3. Union
The UNION operator combines the result sets of two or more SELECT statements, removing
duplicates by default.
Example:
Combine the results of two queries into a single result set:

SELECT emp_name
FROM employees
WHERE department = 'Sales'
UNION
SELECT emp_name
FROM employees
WHERE department = 'Marketing';

4. Intersection
The INTERSECT operator returns the common rows between the result sets of two or more SELECT
statements.
Example:
Retrieve the employees who are in both 'Sales' and 'Marketing' departments:

SELECT emp_name
FROM employees
WHERE department = 'Sales'
INTERSECT
SELECT emp_name
FROM employees
WHERE department = 'Marketing';
5. Difference
The EXCEPT or MINUS operator returns rows from the first query that
are not present in the result set of the second query.
Example:
Retrieve employees who are in 'Sales' but not in 'Marketing':
SELECT emp_name
FROM employees
WHERE department = 'Sales'
EXCEPT
SELECT emp_name
FROM employees
WHERE department = 'Marketing';
6. Join
Joins combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column
between them.
Example:
Retrieve information from two tables (employees and departments)
based on a common column (department_id):
SELECT e.emp_name, d.department_name
FROM employees e
INNER JOIN departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id;
 Write all the single row, multiple row ,
aggregate functions ,description and their
examples with output from page no
158,161,162,164,166.

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