UNIT – IV

STORAGE MANAGEMENT AND FILE

SYSTEMS INTERFACE
STORAGE MANAGEMENT:

• Storage management is the process of

• Controlling and coordinating computer memory
• Assigning portions called blocks to various
running programs to optimize overall system
performance(Allocating Process)
• Freeing it for reuse when no longer needed
(Deallocating process)
• Motivation
• Keep several processes in memory to improve a
systems performance
– Allows Multiprogramming

• Instruction execution cycle

All computers have an instruction execution
cycle.
A basic instruction execution cycle can be
broken down into the following steps:
– Fetch cycle
– Execute cycle
Steps in Fetch/ExecuteCycle
• The instruction is fetched from memory addressed by PC
(Program Counter)
• PC is advanced to address the next instruction
• Instruction Decoder decodes the instruction held in IR
• Instruction is then executed.
• Results are stored back to the memory
Memory Space Protection:
Memory protection is away to control memory
access rights on a computer.
SWAPPING:
• Swapping refers to moving entire processes in
and out of main memory.
• RoundRobin CPU-Scheduling Algorithm
-Each process is provided a fix time to execute called time
slice or quantum

• Priority-based scheduling algorithms

-Each process is assigned apriority. Process with highest
priority is to be executed first and so on
-Processes with same priority are executed on first come
first serve basis
 CONTIGUOUS MEMORY AL LOCATION
• Memory Allocation
Memory Allocation is the process of assigning
blocks of memory on request for the program
execution.
• Memory Allocation mechanism
• Operating system uses the following memory
allocation mechanism.
• Single-partition allocation
• Multiple-partition allocation
Single-partition allocation:
• The operating system resides in the low
memory. The remaining memory treated as a
single partition.
• This single partition is available for userspace.
• Only one job can be loaded in this user space
Multiple-partition allocation:
• Main memory is divided into a number of fixed-
sized partitions where each partition should
contain only one process.
• When a partition is free, a process is selected
from the input queue and is loaded into the free
partition.
Memory Allocation:

1.Fixed Partitions Scheme:

• In this type of allocation, main memory is divided
into a number of fixed-sized partitions where each
partition should contain only one process.
2.Variable Partition Scheme:
• Partitions are of variable length and
number .Process is allocated exactly as much
memory as required
Methods to assign processes to partitions:
• There are two ways to assign processes to
partitions
• Use multiple queues
-Assign each process to the smallest partition within which
it will fit ,by using the scheduling queues
• Use single queue
– In this method, only one ready queue is present for
scheduling the jobs for all the blocks irrespective of
size.
Dynamic Allocation Placement Algorithms
• The following algorithm is used to decide which
free block to allocate to a program

• First fit
» Allocate the first hole that is big enough;
» Process is placed in the first hole it can fit in.

• Best fit
» Allocate the smallest hole that is big.

• Worst-fit
» Allocate the largest hole, also search entire list.
Fragmentation:
• Fragmentation occurs when a system contains total
free memory to satisfy any request.

• Internal fragmentation
-Internal fragmentation is that the allocated memory
may be slightly larger than requested memory.
• External fragmentation
-External fragmentation is done when the total
memory space exists to satisfy a request.
PAGING:
• Paging is a memory-management scheme that
permits the logical address space of a process
can be non contiguous.
• Pages
• Logical memory is also divided into blocks of
same size called pages
Memory Allocation in Paging
SEGMENTATION:
• Segmentation is the Memory Management
Scheme that supports user view of memory.
• Logical address space is the collection of
segments
• Segmentation Architecture
– Segments are numbered and referred to by a segment
number ,thus a logical address consists of a tuple:

Segment Number Offset

Segmentation with Paging
• In Segmented Paging, the main memory is divided
into variable size segments which are further
divided into fixed size pages

• Segment Number → It points to the appropriate

Segment Number.
• Page Number → It Points to the exact page within
the segment
• Page Offset → Used as an offset within the page
frame
VIRTUALMEMORY
• Virtual memory is a technique that allows
execution of processes that are not
completely in the physical memory.
DEMAND PAGING:
• A demand-paging system is a paging system with swapping.
• Itinitially loads pages only into memory (not the entire process) as
they are needed.
• Page Fault:
Page Fault is an interrupt that a rises upon a
reference to a page that is not in main memory.
• Handling a Page Fault
Performance of Demand Paging
• The performance of Demand Paging is measured by
computing the effective access time for a demand paged
memory.
• Let p be probability of a Page Fault Rate 0 p 1.
• if p = 0 no page faults
• if p = 1,every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)
• The Effective Access Time (EAT) is computed as follows
EAT= (1 –p) x memory access +p x page fault time.
Page fault time = page fault over head
+[swap page out ]
+swap page in
+restart over head)
PAGE REPLACEMENT
• Page replacement algorithm decides which
memory pages to be paged out to disk
(Swapout) to allocate memory for another
page
• Types of Page replacement algorithm
• FIFO Page Replacement
• Optimal Page Replacement
• LRU Page Replacement
• FIFOPageReplacement
• FIFO stands for First-InFirst-Out
• Simple page replacement algorithm
• Chooses the―oldest page in the memory
Referencestring: 1, 2,3,4, 1,2, 5,1,2,3, 4, 5

• Numberof page fault=9

• The page fault occurs for the given reference string is shown below

Faultrate=9/12 = 0.75
Optimal Page Replacement:
• Replace the page that will not be used for the
longest period of time in the future
Reference string: 1, 2,3,4, 1,2, 5,1,2,3, 4, 5

Number of page fault=7

Fault rate=7/12 = 0.58

LRU Page Replacement:
Replace the page that has not been used for the
longest period of time in past.
Reference string: 1, 2,3,4, 1,2, 5,1,2,3, 4, 5

Number of page fault=10

Fault rate=10/12 = 0.83

 THRASHING
• If a process does not have enough pages ,the
page-fault rate is very high. This leads to high
paging activity called Thrashing.
• A process is spending more time paging than
executing.
Working-Set Model
• The working set strategy is a variable-allocation
method with local scope based on the
assumption of locality of references.

• The pages used by a process within a window

of time are called its working set.
• Page-Fault Frequency
• It establish―acceptable ‖page-fault rate
– If actual rate too low, process loses frame
– If actual rate too high, process gains frame

Page-Fault Frequency (PFF) Strategy

– Define an upper bound U and lower bound L for page fault rates.
– Allocate more frames to a process if fault rate is higher than U.
– Allocate less frames if fault rate is less than L.
 FILE CONCEPTS
• Named collection of related information that is recorded on
secondary storage such as magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and
optical disks.
• File System
• File system is the mechanism used to control how
data and program is stored and retrieved.
• File system consists of the following parts
– files
– directory structure
– Partitions
File Types
• indicate the internal structure of the file.
The Different types of file
– Data files
– Text file
– Source file
– Object file
– Executable file
• File Attributes
– Name
– Identifier
– Type
– Location
– Size
– Production
– Time, date, and user identification

File operations
– Create
– Write
– Read
– Reposition
– Delete
– Truncate
• Types of Lock
• Shared lock
A shared lock is a reader lock in that several
processes can acquire the lock concurrently.
• Exclusive lock
An exclusive lock behaves like a writer lock; only
one process at a time can acquire such a lock.
 FILE ACCESS METHODS
• Sequential access
- information in the file is processed in order
• Direct/Random access
- accessing the records directly
• Indexed sequential access
- index is created for each file which contains
pointers to various blocks
 DIRECTORY STRUCTURE
• Directory is a file system structure in which
computer files are stored.
• Directory is also known as folders.
• Files are organized by storing related files in the
same directory.
Logical Structure schemes:
• The different schemes for defining the logical
structure of a directory are
» Single-Level Directory
» Two-level Directory
» Tree-Structured Directories
» Acyclic-Graph Directories
» General Graph Directory

1. Single-Level Directory
• All files are contained in the same directory
Two-level Directory:
• One master file directory(MFD)
• Each user has their own UFD
Tree-Structured Directories
• An extension to the two-tiered directory structure It is extended to
a tree of arbitrary height
• Allows users to create their own subdirectories and to organize
their files
A cyclic-Graph Directories:
– Generalization of the tree-structured directory scheme
 FILE SYSTEM MOUNTING
• Mounting is a process by which the
operating system makes files and directories on a
storage device .
• File must be opened before it is used, a file system
must be mounted before it can be available to
processes on the system.
 FILE PROTECTION
The information stored in a computer system must
be kept safe from
• Physical damage (reliability)
• Improper access (protection)
Types of Access
– Read: Read from the file
– Write:Write or rewrite the file
– Execute:Load the file into memory and execute it
– Append:Write new information at the end of the file
– Delete: Delete the file and free its space for possible reuse
– List:List the name and attributes of the file