UNIT 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF

CONVENTIONAL SURVEYING

BEARING, LOCAL ATTRACTION &

DECLINATION
 BEARING
MAGNETIC
S MERIDIAN
TN
MN
TRUE
MERIDIAN

MAGNETIC
BEARING
B

TRUE BEARING
 Designation of bearing

• The bearing are designated in the following two

system:-
• 1) Whole Circle Bearing System.(W.C.B)

• 2) Quadrantal Bearing System.(Q.B)

 Whole circle bearing system
(W.C.B.)

• The bearing of a line measured with respect to magnetic

meridian in clockwise direction is called magnetic bearing
and its value varies between 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ.

• The quadrant start from north an progress in a clockwise

direction as the first quadrant is 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ in clockwise
direction , 2nd 90ᴼ to 180ᴼ , 3rd 180ᴼ to 270ᴼ, and up to 360ᴼ is
4th one.
WHOLE
CIRCLE
BEARING
 Quadrantal bearing
system(Q.B.)
• In this system, the bearing of survey lines are measured wrt
to north line or south line which ever is the nearest to the
given survey line and either in clockwise direction or in anti
clockwise direction.
QUADRANTAL
BEARING
 Reduced bearing (R.B)

• When the whole circle bearing is converted into Quadrantal

bearing , it is termed as “REDUCED BEARING”.
• Thus , the reduced bearing is similar to the Quadrant bearing.

• Its values lies between 0ᴼ to 90ᴼ, but the quadrant should be

mentioned for proper designation.
• The following table should be remembered
for conversion of WCB to RB.
W.C.B OF QUADRANT RULES FOR QUADRANT
ANY IN CONVERSION
LINE WHICH IT
LIES
0 TO 90 I RB=WCB N-E
90 TO 180 II RB=180-WCB S-E
180 TO 270 III RB =WCB- S-W
180ᴼ
270 TO 360 IV RB=360ᴼ - N-W
WCB
 Fore bearing and Back
bearing

• The bearing of a line measured in the forward direction of the

survey lines is called the ‘fore bearing’(F.B.) of that line.

• The bearing of a line measured in direction backward to the

direction of the progress of survey is called the ‘back
bearing’(B.B.) of the line.
 NORTH
FB of AB = Θ1(from A to B)
NORTH
BB of AB= Θ2(from B to A)

Θ1 Θ2

BB of line AB

FB of line AB
 Remembering following points

1) In the WCB system ,the differences b/n the FB and

BB should be exactly 180ᴼ. Remember the following relation
:
• BB=FB+/-180ᴼ
• + is applied when FB is <180ᴼ
• - is applied when BB is >180ᴼ

2) In the reduced bearing system the FB and BB are

numerically equal but the quadrants are just opposite.
 Computation of Angles

• Observing the bearing of the lines of a

B
closed traverse, it is possible to
calculate the included angles, which
A C
can be used for plotting the traverse.

• At the station where two survey lines D

meet, two angles are formed-an
exterior angles and an interior angles.
The interior angles or included angle is
generally the smaller angles(<180ᴼ).
 Meridian

• Bearing of a line is always measured clockwise wrt some

reference line or direction. This fixed line is known as
meridian.
• There three types of meridian:

• 1) Magnetic meridian: The direction shown by a freely

suspended needle which is magnetized and balanced
properly without influenced by any other factors is known as
magnetic meridian.
• 2) True meridian : True meridian is the line which
passes through the true north and south. The direction
of true meridian at any point can be determined by either
observing the bearing of the sun at 12 noon or by sun’s
shadow.

• 3) Arbitrary meridian: In case of small works or in places

where true meridian or magnetic meridian cannot be
determined, then ,any direction of a prominent object is
taken as a reference direction called as arbitrary meridian.
 LOCAL ATTRACTION
• A magnetic meridian at a place is established by magnetic
needle which is influenced by other attracting forces.
Sources of local attraction:
✔ Magnets in the ground
✔ Wires carrying electric current
✔ Steel structures
✔ Rail road or rails
✔ Underground pipes
✔ Keys
 DETECTION OF LOCAL ATTRACTION

• Detected by observing fore bearing and back bearing

and finding its difference
• If the difference is 180 degree then it is free from local
attraction
• If the difference is not 180 degree then it is due to an
error in the observation of fore bearing or back bearing
or due to presence of local attraction.
 DIP OF MAGNETIC NEEDLE
• A perfectly balanced needle before magnetisation may
not remain in the balance position.
• This is due to earths magnetic influence
• It generally incline towards the pole.
• This horizontal inclination is referred to as dip of the
magnetic needle.
True meridian & Magnetic meridian
 Checks on traverse
• Check on closed traverse:
– Sum of the measured interior angles (2n-4) x 90°
– Sum of the measured exterior angles (2n+4) x 90 °
– The algebric sum of the deflection angles should be
equal to 360°. Right hand deflection is considered +ve,
left hand deflection –ve
• Check on linear measurement
– The lines should be measured once each on two
different days (along opposite directions). Both
measurement should tally.
– Linear measurement should also be taken by the stadia
method. The measurement by chaining and stadia
method should tally.
 Computation of angles

• Observing the bearing of the line of a closed traverse, it

is possible to calculate the included angles, which can be
used for plotting the traverse
• The interior angle or included angle is generally the
smaller angle < 180 degrees.
Calculation of angles
 Fore bearing & Back bearing

• F.B – the bearing of a line in the forward direction of

survey line is called the fore bearing
• B.B – the bearing of a line measured in the direction
opposite to the direction of the progress of survey line
called back bearing
 Observing Bearing
✔ The compass is centered over station of the line is leveled.

✔ Having turned vertically the prism and sighting vane, raise or lower the
prism until the graduations on the rings are clear and look through the
prism.
✔ Turn the compass box until the ranging rod at the station is bisected by hair
when looked through the prism.
✔ Turn the compass box above the prism and note the reading at which the
hair line produced appears to cut the images of the graduated ring which
gives the bearing of line .
Errors in Compass observations

The errors may be classified as

✔ Instrumental errors

✔ Personal errors

✔ Errors due to natural causes

 Instrumental errors
They are those which rise due to the faulty adjustments of
the instruments. They may be due to the following
reasons:
✔The needle not being perfectly straight.
✔Pivot being bent
✔Sluggish needle
✔Blunt pivot point
✔Improper balancing weight
✔Plane of sight not being vertical
✔Line of sight not passing through the center of
graduated ring
 Personal errors

They may be due to the following reasons

✔Inaccurate leveling of the compass box.
✔Inaccurate centering.
✔Inaccurate bisection of signals.
✔Carelessness in reading and recording.
 Natural Errors

They may be due to following reasons:

✔Variation in declination
✔Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction
forces.
✔Magnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and
storms.
✔Irregular variations due to magnetic storms etc.
The following forward and back bearings were observed
in traversing with a compass.
OBSERVED BEARINGS

LINE FOREWARD BACKWARD

PQ S 37° 30’ E N 37° 30’ W
QR S 43° 15’ N 44° 15’ E
W
RS N 73° 00’ W S 72° 15’ E
ST N 12° 45’ E S 13° 15’ W
TP N 60° OO’ E S 59° OO’ W

Calculate the interior angles and correct them for

observational errors. Assuming the observed bearing of
line PQ to be correct , adjust the remaining sides.
Solve for the interior angles
 At Station P:

αPQ = S 37° 30’ E

(observed bearing for PQ)
αPT = S 59° 00’ W
(observed bearing for
PT)

So, the interior angle at P is :

ϴP = αPQ + αPT
= 59° 00’ + 37° 30’
= 96° 30’ (COMPUTED interior angle at
P)
 At Station Q:

αQP = N 37° 30’ W

(observed bearing for
QP)
αQR = S 43° 15’ W
(observed bearing for
QR)

So, the interior angle at Q is :

ϴQ = αQP + αQR
= 180° - (37° 30’ + 43° 15’)
= 99° 15’ (COMPUTED interior angle at Q)
 At Station R:

αRQ = N 44° 15’ E

(observed bearing for RQ)
αRS = N 73° 00’ W
(observed bearing for RS)

So, the interior angle at P is :

ϴR = αRQ + αRS
= 44° 15’ + 73° 00’
= 117° 15’ (COMPUTED interior angle at R)
 At Station S:

αSR = S 72° 15’ E

(observed bearing for SR)
αST = S 12° 45’ W
(observed bearing for ST)

So, the interior angle at P is :

ϴS = αSR + αST
= 180° - (72° 15’ + 12° 45’)
= 95° 00’ (COMPUTED interior angle at
S)
 At Station T:

αTS = S 13° 15’ W

(observed bearing for TS)
αTP = N 60° 00’ E
(observed bearing for TP)

So, the interior angle at T is :

ϴT = 90° 00’ + αTS + (90° 00’ – αTP )
= 90° 00’ + 13° 15’ + (90° 00’ - 60° 00’)
= 133° 15’ (COMPUTED interior angle at T)
Adjust the interior angles...
• Sum of Interior Angles
SumA = θP + θQ + θR + θS + θT
= 96° 30’ + 99° 15’ + 117° 15’ +
95° 00’ + 133° 15’
= 541° 15’ (Sum of interior angles)
• Sum of Interior Angles of a Polygon
– Since the lot is a 5 sided polygon, its interior
angle is:
SumB = (n – 2) 180° where: n = no. of sides
= (5 – 2) 180°
= 540° 00’ (THEORETICAL sum)
• Determine the error of closure e =
SumB - SumA
= 541° 15’ - 540° 00’
= 1° 15’ (error of closure)
• Obtain correction Corr
=e/n
= 1° 15’ / 5
= 15’. (correction per interior angle)
• If SumA is less than SumB, the correction is added to
each interior angle to determine the adjusted interior
angle. Else, subtract.

θ’P = θP - Corr. = -96°

15’ 30’ = 96° 15’
θ’Q = θQ - Corr. = 99° 15’- 15’ = 99° 00’
θ’R = θR - Corr. = 117° 15’ - = 117°00’
15’ = 94° 45’
θ’S = θS - Corr. = 95° 00’ - = 133°00’
15’
= 540° 00’
θ’T = θT - Corr. = 133° 15’ -
15’

Sum = 541° 15’ - 1°

15’
Solve for the adjusted bearings
• The adjustment is started from either end of the
best line.
- Adjustment for QR and RQ

θ’Q = 99° 00’

α’PQ = N 37° 30’ W

α’QR = 180° - (α’PQ + θ’Q )

=180° - (37° 30’ + 99° 00’ )

= 43° 30’ or

α’QR = S 43° 30’ E

(adjusted bearing of line QR)

-Also, α’RQ = N 43° 30’ W

(adjusted bearing of line RQ which

-Adjustment for RS and SR

θ’R = 117°00’

α’RQ = N 43° 30’ E

α’RS = θ’R - α’RQ

= 117° 00’ - 43° 30’

= 73° 30’ or

α’RS = N 73° 30’ W

(adjusted bearing of line RS)

-Also, α’SR = S 73° 30’ E

(adjusted bearing of line SR which is

opposite the adjusted
bearing of RS)
-Adjustment for ST and TS

θ’S = 94°45’

α’SR = S 73° 30’ E

α’ST = 180° - (θ’S + α’SR )

= 180° 00’ –
(94° 45’ + 73° 30’)
= 11° 45’ or

α’ST = N 11° 45’ E

(adjusted bearing of line RS)

-Also, α’TS = S 11° 45’ W

(adjusted bearing of line TS which is

opposite the adjusted
- Adjustment for TP and PT

θ’T = 133°00’

α’TS = S 73° 30’ W

α’TP = 180° + α’TS - θ’T

= 180° 00’ + 11° 45’

- 133°00’
= 58° 45’ or

α’TP = N 58° 45’ E

(adjusted bearing of line RS)

-Also, α’PT = S 58° 45’ W

(adjusted bearing of line PT which is

opposite the adjusted
 Tabulated of Adjusted Traverse Area
COMPUTED ADJUSTE ADJUSTED BEARINGS
STATION CORR. LINE
INTEROR D
FORWARD BACK
ANGLES INTERIOR
ANGLES

P 96° 30’ 15’ 96° 15’ PQ S 37° 30’ E N 37° 30’ W

Q 99° 15’ 15’ 99° 00’ QR S 43° 30’ W N 43° 30’ E

R 117° 15’ 15’ 117° 00’ RS N 73° 30’ W S 73°

30’ E
S 95° 00’ 15’ 94° 45’ ST N 11° 45’ E S 11° 45’ W

T 133° 15’ 15’ 133° 00’ TP N 58° 45’ E S 58° 45’ W

SUM 541° 15’ 1° 15’ 540° 00’

 Magnetic Declination

⚫ Declination is the latitudinal part of the equatorial

coordinate system, which is used to map celestial
objects.

⚫ Declination can be used to find the angle of a celestial

object above or below the equator, such as the sun.
 Key Terms
⚫ In the equatorial coordinate
system, there are several key
terms used.

⚫ The ecliptic is similar to the

equator , but is not tilted at an
angle.

⚫ Right Ascension is used to

measure longitudinal angles.

⚫ Often these are called “celestial,” such as the celestial

equator.
 Practical Uses
⚫ Measuring declination is primarily used for mapping
celestial objects.

⚫ It can be used for the sun to find the angle of sunlight for a
position on earth.
 Finding Declination
⚫ There are relatively simple equations which can be used
to find declination.

can be used,

⚫ The equation
• where d = the day of the year.

⚫ With this equation, the day October 30, which is the 303rd
day of the year, has an approximate declination angle of -
19.11˚.