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Transportation
Engineering
• Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that is
involved in the planning, design, operation and maintenance of safe
and efficient transportation systems.
• These systems include roadways, railways, waterways etc.
• It is a basic component of anyareas physical, economic and social
structure.
• It plays a vital role in development of rural areas of the country.
• They improve the employment opportunities.

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 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION

ROMAN ROADS

TRESAGUET’S CONSTRUCTION

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 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD
CONSTRUCTION
METCALF CONSTRUCTION

TELFORD CONSTRUCTION

MACADAM’S CONSTRUCTION

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 Highway development in India

⮚ Roads in ancient India

⮚ Roads in Mughal period

⮚ Roads in 19th century

⮚ Jayakar committee and recommendations

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 Classification of roads

Depending on weather Based on type of Based on type of pavement

pavement surface

All weather Paved roads Surfaced

roads roads

Fair weather Unpaved Unsurfaced

roads roads roads

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7
 20 Year Road Development
Plans

Nagpur Road Plan

Bombay Road Plan

Lucknow Road Plan

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 National Highway

State Highway

Classification of roads based Major District Roads

on Nagpur Road Plan
Other District Roads

Village Roads

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 Express
Highways
Primary System
National
Highways

Classification of roads based on Lucknow State Highways

Secondary System
Road Plan Major District
Roads
Other District
Roads
Tertiary System
Village Roads
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 Arterial Roads

Sub-arterial Roads
Classification of Urban
Roads Collector Streets

Local Streets

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 National Highway: These are the main
highways running
through the length and breadth of the country connecting major ports,
foreign highways, capitals of large states etc.

State Highway: These are main roads of a state connecting to NH of

adjacent state, district headquarters, main cities. In some places SH
carries more traffic than NH, but this will not alter the designation. Both
NH and SH have same design speed and geometric design.
Classification of Major District Roads: These are the
roads based on district serving areas
important of production
roads within and
a markets and connecting with main
Nagpur Road Plan highway of a district. MDR has lower design speed than NH and SH.
Other District Roads: These are roads serving rural areas of
production and providing them with outlet to market centres, taluk head
quarters, block development quarters etc.

Village Roads: These are roads connecting villages or group of

villages with each other to nearest road of higher category.
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 Express Highways:
These are
separate class of
superior
highwaysfacility
with and design standards
and are meant as through routes
Primary System having very heavy traffic.

National
Highways

Classification of roads based on Lucknow State Highways

Road Plan Secondary System
Major District
Roads

Other District
Roads
Tertiary System
Village Roads
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 ⮚ Arterial &
sub arterial are street
Arterial Roads roads
. for through traffic

Sub-arterial Roads ⮚ on
Collector
continuous
streets
route provide
Classification of Urban
arterial streets.
Roads Collector Streets
access
They tocollect traffic to
Local Streets
and from local
streets.
⮚ Local streets provide

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access to abutting
 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF ROADS

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 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF ROADS

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 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

• Horizontal Alignment:- Straight path, horizontal

deviations and curve
• Vertical Alignment:- Changes in gradients, vertical curves

Necessity of highway alignment

If not properly aligned, it would result in

• Increase in construction cost
• Increase in maintenance cost
• Increase in vehicle operation cost
• Increase in accident rate

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 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Requirements

a. Short
b. Easy
c. Safe
d. Economical

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 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

a. Obligatory points
b. Traffic
c. Geometric design
d. Economy
e. Other considerations

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 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

a. Obligatory points
i. Points through which
the alignment should
pass

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 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

a. Obligatory points
ii. Points through which the
alignment should not
pass •Religious places, costly
structures, unsuitable land etc
•Marshy, peaty and water
logged areas
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 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
⚫ Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

⚫Traffic -The volume of traffic and an increase in the traffic volume per year and peak
traffic is analyzed and alignment is finalized by considering all previous data of
traffic
⚫Geometric features- The permissible limit of slopes, sight distances requirements,
radius of curves, the width of the road and so many other dimensional features of the
road also may dictate alignment.
⚫ Economy: The initial cost, operating cost and maintenance cost should be minimum for the
finalized alignment.

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 Geometric Design
Geometric design deals with the following:
• Cross section elements
• Sight distance considerations
• Horizontal alignment
• Vertical alignment
• Intersection elements

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 Geometric design
Factors controlling geometric design

a. Design speed
b. Topography
c. Traffic factors
d. Design hourly volume
e. Environmental and other factors

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 Design speed

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 Topography

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 Geometric design
Cross section Elements

a. Pavement surface characteristics:- Friction, Pavement unevenness,

Light reflecting characteristics, drainage of water
b. Cross slope
c. Width of pavement
d. Kerbs
e. Road margins
f. Width of roadway
28 g. Right of way
 Pavement surface
characteristics

a. Friction: Skid resistance

Factors affecting skid resistance: Type of pavement surface, Toughness, pavement
condition,
Speed of vehicle, Brake efficiency, Tyre pressure, Temp

b. Pavement unevenness:
Bump Integrator- unevenness index
<150cm/km – good pavement surface
250cm/km – satisfactory
>350cm/km - uncomfortable

c. Light reflecting characteristics

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 Cross slope / Camber
• It is provided in the transverse direction to drain of water from
surface.
▪ Importance:
▪ To prevent entry of water to subgrade
• To prevent entry of water to bituminous layers
• To improve skid resistance
• Expressed as: 1 in n or x%

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 Cross slope / Camber
• Shape of cross slope

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 Soln: Straight line cross
slope

Case i: WBM pavement

W = 3.8m

3.
I in n = 1 in 33
W
y = 2n = 8 = 0.058m
2 x 33
Case ii: Bituminous concrete pavement

W = 7m

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I in n = 1 in 50
W
y = 2n = = 0.078m
32 2 x 50
 Width of pavement
• Depends on width of traffic lane and no. of
lanes

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 Traffic
separators/Medians
• Functions:
1. To channelize flow at intersections
2. Separate the crossing and turning of traffic Markings

3. Segregate slow traffic and protect

pedestrians

Examples
• Markings
• Physical Dividers
• Area separators

Physical Dividers Area separators

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 Kerb
s
• Kerbs indicates the boundary between Pavement
and
shoulders or footpath.
• Low or mountable kerbs
• Semi Barrier
• Barrier
• Submerged

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 margins

Shoulders Parking lanes, Cycle tracks Lay byes

Bus bays Frontage roads

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 Guard rails

Embankment slopes

Drive ways
Footpath
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 Width of Roadway / Formation
• Width of Roadway / Formation= Width of pavement + width of shoulder

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 Right of way
• Right of way- Area of land acquired for road along its alignment.

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 Sight
distance- The actual distance along the road surface, which
a carriagedriver
specified height above the way hasfrom a of stationery or moving objects.
visibility

• Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance

• Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
• Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled
intersections
• Intermediate SD
• Headlight SD

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The standards for SD should 2
satisfy three conditions:
• Driver travelling at design speed has sufficient SD or
length of road visible to stop the vehicle in case of 1
any obstruction.
• Driver travelling at design speed should be able to
overtake, without causing obstruction to traffic of
2
opposite direction.
• Driver entering uncontrolled intersections has sufficient
1
visibility to enable him to control his vehicle and to avoid
collision.

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 Stopping Sight Distance(SSD)
• Minimum SD available on a highway at any spot should be of sufficient
length to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without colliding
with any other obstruction.
• Non passing SD
• SD available on a road to a driver at any instant depends on
1. Features of the road ahead
2. Height of driver’s eye above the road surface
3. Height of object above the road surface

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 SSD depends
on:
1. Total reaction time
• Perception time
• Brake reaction time
2. Speed of vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes
4. Frictional resistance
5. Gradient
PIEV Theory

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 SSD depends on:
1. Total reaction time
• Perception time
• Brake reaction time
2. Speed of vehicle:
• Higher the speed, more time will be required to stop the
vehicle.
• As speed increases, SD increases.
3. Efficiency of brakes
• SD required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are less

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 4. Frictional resistance
• More frictional resistance, SD will be
less.

5. Gradient
• + ve gradient –
Less SD
• - ve gradient – More SD

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 ANALYSIS OF SSD (On level Road)
SSD = Lag distance + Braking distance

Lag distance
• Distance travelled during
reaction time.

• Lag distance = V x t in meters

• V – design Speed in m/s
• t – reaction time in sec

• Lag distance = 0.278V x t in meters

• V – design Speed in Kmph
• t – reaction time in sec

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 ANALYSIS OF SSD
SSD = Lag distance + Braking distance

Braking distance

• Distance travelled during brake reaction time.

• Work done by friction = KE of vehicle moving at design speed

• WD = KE
• WD by friction = f W x L
• KE = 21mV²
• f W x L = 12mV²
SSD = Vt + V² , V in m/s
• f W x L = 12 W V² 𝟐𝐠𝐟
g
V²
2g
• L = V²
𝟐𝟓𝟒
SSD = 0.278Vt + , V in Kmph
f
𝐟
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 ANALYSIS OF SSD
For Gradients
When there is an ascending gradient of say +n%, the component of gravity adds to braking
action and hence braking distance is decreased. The component of gravity acting parallel
n
the surface which adds to the braking force = W10
to
WD = KE 0

n
f W xL + W
100
x L = 21 Wg V²
n% nV

L = 2g(f+V² 2g(f+0.01n)
𝚗
) = α
100
V² 100 H
α
When there is an descending gradient of say -n W

%,
L= V²

2g(f−0.01n
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 ANALYSIS OF SSD
SSD = Lag distance + Braking distance

SSD = Vt + 𝟐𝐠(𝐟±𝟎.𝟎𝟏
V²
𝐧)
,V
in m/s
SSD = 0.278Vt + 𝟐𝟓𝟒(𝐟±𝟎.𝟎𝟏
V²
, V in
𝐧)
Kmph
SSD for one lane, one way traffic = SSD

SSD for one lane, two way traffic = 2 x SSD

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 Qn: Calculate SSD for speed 50kmph for
a) 2 lane 2 way Road
b) 1 lane 1 way Road
c) 1 lane 2 way Road

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 Ans
:
𝟐𝟓𝟒
SSD = 0.278Vt + V² , V in
𝐟
Kmph
V = 50 Kmph
f = 0.37
t = 2.5s
50²
SSD = 0.278 x 50 x 2.5 + 254 x = 61.4m
0.37

a) 2 lane 2 way Road, SSD = 61.4m

b) 1 lane 1 way Road, SSD = 61.4m

c) 1 lane 2 way Road, SSD = 2 x 61.4 = 122.8m

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Qn: Calculate minimum SD required to avoid head on collision of 2 cars approaching from opposite
direction at 90 and 60 kmph. Given f= 0.7 and brake efficiency = 50%
Ans:

⚫Given, SSD = 0.278Vt +𝟐𝟓𝟒

V²
, V in
Kmph 𝐟
⚫V1 = 90 Kmph
⚫V2 = 60 Kmph
⚫f = 0.7Brake efficiency = 50%
Coefficient of friction due to braking efficiency of 50% = 0.7 x 0.5 =

90²
SSD of first car, SSD
0.35
1 = 0.278 x 90 x 2.5254
+x
0.35
= 153.6m
2 = 0.278 x 60 x 2.5 +254 x 60²
SSD of second car, SSD
0.35
= 82.2m
Total SSD = 153.6 + 82.2 =
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235.8m
 Qn: Calculate SSD on a highway at positive
and negative gradient of 2% for design speed of 80kmph.
Assume other data as per IRC.
Ans:
SSD = 0.278Vt + 𝟐𝟓𝟒(𝐟±𝟎.𝟎𝟏
V²
, V in Kmph
𝐧)

Given,
V = 80 Kmph
f = 0.35
t = 2.5s
80²
SSD for +ve gradient= 0.278 x 80 x 2.5 + 254 x( 0.35+0.01 x
= 123.69m
2)

SSD for –ve gradient = 0.278 x 80 x 2.5 + 25480²

x (0.35−0.01
= 132mx
53 2)
 SIGHT DISTANCE

• Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance

• Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
• Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled
intersections
• Intermediate SD
• Headlight SD

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 Overtaking Sight distance
It is the minimum distance open to the vision of driver of fast moving vehicle intending
to overtake a slow moving vehicle with safety against traffic from opposite direction.
Factors affecting OSD
⮚ Speeds of overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and vehicle from opposite direction.
⮚ Distance between overtaking and overtaken vehicle.
⮚ Skill and reaction time of vehicle.
⮚ Rate of acceleration.
⮚ Gradient if any.

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56
 Analysis of OSD
A – Overtaking vehicle
B – Overtaken vehicle
C – Vehicle travelling in opposite direction
d₁ - Distance travelled by A during time ‘t’ from A₁ to A₂

d₂ - Distance travelled by A during overtaking operation ‘T’ from A₂ to

A₃ d₃ - Distance travelled by C during ‘T’ from C₁ to C₂

A is travelling at design speed V m/s or V kmph
B is travelling at slow speed Vb m/s or Vb kmph
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C is travelling from opposite direction V m/s or V kmph
 Analysis of OSD
Assumptions:
1. It is assumed that ‘A’ is forced to reduce speed to speed V b of slow moving vehicle
while it waits for safe gap for overtaking during reaction time ‘t’ sec and maintain
gap between ‘B’. During this time A travels from A₁ to A₂, which is ‘d₁’.
d₁ = Vb x t
2. From A₂, ‘A’ starts accelerating, shifts to adjacent lane, overtakes ‘B’ and shifts back
to previous lane in front of ‘B’ with gap ‘S’. During this overtaking time ‘T’, ‘A’
travels from A₂ to A₃, which is d₂. ‘B’ travels a distance ‘b’ from B₁ to B₂
d₂ = S + b +S = b +2S
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Analysis of OSD
Assumptions(conti….)
By empirical formula,
S = (0.7Vb + 6) meters
Therefore,
2 4
Also, d₂ = Vb T + ²
1
aT² d₂ = Vb T + 21a Sa
b + 2S = Vb T + 12aT²
d₂ = Vb T +
Also, b = Vb T 2S

Vb T + 2S = Vb T + 21aT²

4
T= Sa
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 Analysis of OSD
Assumptions(conti…..)
3. During overtaking time ‘T’ , ‘C’ moves from C₁ to C₂,
which is d₃
d₃ = V T For 2 lane 1 way road,
So, OSD = d₁ + d₂
For 2 lane 2 way road,
OSD = d₁ + d₂ + OSD = d₁ + d₂ + d₃
d₃
𝟒
If Vb is not given,
When V is in m/s, S = (0.7Vb + 6) meters, T = 𝐒 Vb = V – 4.5, V in m/s
𝐚 Vb = V – 16, V in kmph
OSD = Vb t + Vb T + 2S + VT

𝟏𝟒.𝟒
When V is in kmph, S = (0.2Vb + 6) meters, T = 𝐒𝐚

OSD = 0.278Vb t + 0.278Vb T + 2S + 0.278VT

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 Maximum Overtaking Acceleration at different Speeds

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 Effect of
Gradient

⮚ Effect of gradient is ignored in OSD calculation

⮚ OSD on slopes is taken as same as on level road.
⮚ Overtaking time varies from 9 to 14 seconds.

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 Overtaking
Zones
⮚ For safe overtaking, overtaking zones are provided at regular intervals.
⮚ OSD and pavement width of these zones should be sufficient for
overtaking.
⮚ Sign post will be provided before entry and before exit of overtaking zones.
⮚ Length of overtaking zones is 3 to 5 times of OSD.
⮚ Minimum overtaking zone length = 3 x OSD
⮚ Maximum overtaking zone length = 5 x OSD

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 Intermediate
SD
⮚ ISD is provided where OSD cannot be provided.
⮚ On curves, OSD cannot be provided and hence overtaking should be prohibited by
regulatory signs. In such cases ISD is provided.
⮚ ISD = 2 x SSD

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 Headlight
SD
⮚ It is the distance available under the illumination of
headlight.
⮚ HSD = SSD

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 Calculate the values of (i)Question
HSD (ii) ISD for highway with
design speed 65kmph.

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Answe
r

𝟐𝟓𝟒
SSD = 0.278Vt + , V in Kmph
Given,
V² 𝐟

V = 65kmph
t = 2.5s
f = 0.36

SSD = 0.278 x 65 x 2.5 + 254 65²

x = 91.38
m 0.36
HSD = SSD = 91.38m
ISD = 2 x SSD = 2 x 91.38 = 182.76m

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 Question
2

The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70kmph and

40kmph respectively. Given a = 0.99m/s² Calculate:
a) OSD
b) Minimum and maximum length of overtaking zones
c) Draw a sketch of zone

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Answe
r
𝟒
Given, When V is in m/s, S = (0.7Vb + 6) meters, T = 𝐒
𝐚
V = 70kmph = 70/3.6 = 19.44m/s OSD = Vb t + Vb T + 2S + VT

Vb = 40kmph= 40/3.6 = 11.11m/s

a = 0.99m/s²
834 to 1390 m

t = 2s 277.56m

a) S = 0.7 x 11.11 + 6 = 13.7m 277.56m

4 x 13.7
0.9
T= = 7.46 s
9
277.56
OSD = 11.11 x 2 + 11.11 x 7.46 + 2 x 13.7 +19.44 x 7.46 277.56

= 277.56m 834 to 1390 m

b) Minimum length of zone = 3 x OSD = 3 x 277.56

= 834m Maximum length of zone = 5 x OSD = 5 x 277.56 =
1390m
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 Sight Distance at Uncontrolled
Intersections
⮚ On all approaches of intersecting roads, there should be
clear view from sufficient point to avoid collision.
⮚ The area of unobstructed sight formed by the lines of
Major Road 2
sight is called sight triangle. B

Minor Minor
Road 1 A C Road 3

Major Road 4
Sight Triangle

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 Design of SD at intersection is based on 3
conditions
1. Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed.
✔ SD should be sufficient to enable either one or both the approaching vehicles
to change speed to avoid collision.
✔ The vehicle approaching from minor road should slow down.
✔ The total reaction time required for driver to change speed may be assumed as Major Road 2
2s
B
and additional 1s is needed for making the change in speed.
✔ Minimum length of AC and BC is distance covered in 2s.
2. Enabling the approaching vehicle to Road 1 A C
Minor
Road 3
Minor
stop.
✔ SD should be available for vehicle approaching from minor road to
stop.
✔ Hence AC = BC = safe SSD Major Road 4
Sight Triangle

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 Design of SD at intersection is based on 3
conditions
3. Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a road.
✔ SD should be sufficient for stopped vehicle to cross.
✔ In case of minor road vehicles stopped by stop sign, they should have
adequate SD from stopped position to start, accelerate and cross the road.
Major Road 2
✔ The time ‘T’ required to cross the road depends
on B
i. Reaction time of driver
ii. Width of main road
Minor Minor
iii. Acceleration Road 1 A C Road 3

iv. Length of vehicle

Major Road 4
Sight Triangle

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 Sight Distance at Uncontrolled
Intersections
⮚ IRC recommends:
⮚ Minimum visibility distance of 15m along minor
road.
Major Road 2
⮚ Along major road:
B

Design Speed(kmph) Minimum Visible

distance(m)
Minor Minor
100 220 Road 1 A C Road 3
80 180
65 145
Major Road 4
50 110 Sight Triangle

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 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• Due to the presence of obligatory points alignment of highways has to be
changed.
• Alignment should enable safe, consistent and smooth movement of
vehicles operating at design speed.
• So sharp curves and reverse curves should be avoided.
• Improper alignment would necessitate speed changes.
• Speed changes depends on:
1. Terrain
2. Class of road
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75
 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• Horizontal curves
• Super elevation
• Radius of horizontal curve
• Widening of pavement on horizontal curves- Extrawidening
• Horizontal transition curve

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 Horizontal
curves

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 HORIZONTAL CURVES
• Horizontal curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction of central line of the
road.
• When a vehicle traverses a curve, centrifugal force acts, horizontally outwards through
C.G of vehicle.

• Centrifugal force depends on radius of horizontal curve and speed of vehicle negotiating

the curve.

• Centrifugal force is counteracted by transverse frictional force which help the vehicle to

change direction along the curve and maintain stability of vehicle.

• Centrifugal force, P = WV²
g
P –– centrifugal
speed, m/s force, kg
R
V
W––radius
R weightofofcurve,
vehicle,
m kg
78 g – acceleration due to gravity
m/s²
 Centrifugal Ratio / Impact Factor

Ratio of centrifugal force to weight of vehicle is called centrifugal ratio

or impact factor.

P
= WV² x

= V² W
gR W
gR
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Centrifugal force on vehicle at curves have two effects:
Analysis Of Stability Of Vehicle Negotiating Horizontal Curves
Against Overturning And Transverse Skidding (Without
Superelevation)
i. Overturning effect

Centrifugal force that tends vehicle to overturn about B is given by ‘

P’. Overturning moment due to centrifugal force about B = P h

This is resisted by moment due to weight of the vehicle = W 2b

h = height of C.G. of vehicle above road

surface

b = width of wheel base

For equilibrium, P
=

P
b
Ph=W2 b W
If > , overturning will
b occur.
W
80 2h So P/W should be less than b/2h --🡪 for no overturning
2h
ii. Skidding Effect

Centrifugal force, P has a tendency to push the vehicle outwards in the transverse
direction.

If ‘P’ exceeds frictional force, vehicle will start skidding in transverse direction.

For equilibrium, P = FA + FB

= f RA + f RB = f (RA + RB)

Since RA + RB = W

P = fW
g P
If centrifugal ratio is equal to ‘f’ there is danger of skidding.
Therefore,Wshould be less than f 🡪 for no skidding.
R ²
WV
=fW
P
W
=f
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 Super
Elevation

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 SUPER ELEVATION
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of vehicle
to overturn or skid, the outer edge of pavement is raised with respect to inner edge,
thus providing a transverse slope throughout length of curve.
• This transverse inclination given to the pavement is called Cant / Banking / Super
elevation.
• Super elevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of height of
outer edge with respect to horizontal width.

• e = NL = tan ɵ
M
L
• Since ɵ is small, tan ɵ ≅ sin ɵ = NL
M
N
L

• e = NL = E e=𝐄 83

MN
 Analysis of Super
Elevation
• Forces acting on vehicle while moving on a circular curve of radius R meters, at speed V
m/s are:

i. Centrifugal force Pg= WV² acting horizontally outwards through

CG. R
ii. Weight ‘W’ of vehicle acting through CG.
iii. Frictional force developed between wheels and pavement.
• Centrifugal force is opposed by friction developed and component of gravity due to super
elevation provided.

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 Analysis of Super
Elevation
• For equilibrium
P cosɵ = W sinɵ + FA + FB

= W sinɵ + f (RA + RB)

= W sinɵ + f (P sinɵ + W
ɵ
cosɵ) P
P cosɵ - f P sinɵ = W sinɵ + f W ɵ
cosɵ P(cosɵ - f sinɵ) = W(sinɵ + f
cosɵ) Dividing throughout with W ɵ
cosɵ P(1- f tan ɵ) = W (tan ɵ + f) P sinɵ

P
W

W=
tan ɵ + f W cosɵ
1− f tan ɵ
Value of f is taken as 0.15 and value of tanɵ should not exceed
0.07.
f tan ɵ = 0.01
P
1 – f tan ɵ = 0.99 ≈ W
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= tan ɵ + f = f + e
 Analysis of Super
Elevation
• For equilibrium • If f = 0 , the equilibrium superelevation required to counteract

P centrifugal force fully will be given by,

W
=f+e
V²
V² 127R
e=
g
=f+e
R • In some places where super elevation cannot be provided, e =
e – rate of super elevation = tan ɵ
0, centrifugal force is fully counteracted by frictional force.
f – lateral coefficient of friction =
f = V²
0.15
V – speed in m/s 127R

R – radius of curve in m • In some type of intersections, it is not possible to provide

g – acceleration due to gravity super elevation and in such cases

V² frictional force fully
If V is in kmph, 127 =f+e
R counteracts the centrifugal force and allowable speed will be

86 restricted to, V = 127 f R

 Design of Super
elevation
Super elevation should be provided so that centrifugal force due to 75% design speed is
compensated. Lateral friction is neglected and maximum super elevation is taken as
0.07.

V²
Steps for super elevation design
127 225
1. Super elevation for 75% design speed is calculated by the formula, e
(0.75V)²
= = R R
2. If calculated super elevation is less than 0.07, then ok.

3. If calculated super elevation is greater than 0.07, put e = 0.07 and calculate ‘f’ using
the V²
127
equation, e + f =
R
If f < 0.15, then ok. Else go to step 4.

speed Va,
4. If f > 0.15, put e = 0.07, f = 0.15 and calculate restricted
e + f = Va²
127
R
87
Va =
 Design of Super elevation
If design speed < Va , then design is adequate and provide e =

0.07. If design speed > Va , then restrict it to allowable speed.

⮚ Maximum super elevation

✔ 7% - for mixed traffic( bound by snow plain and rolling
terrain)
✔ 10% - for hill roads ( not bound by snow)

⮚ Minimum super elevation

✔ Minimum camber for the surface
88
 Question
1

The radius of horizontal curve is 100m. Design speed is 50kmph and design coefficient of friction is
0.15.
a. Calculate super elevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.
b. Calculate coefficient of friction needed if no super elevation is provided.
c. Calculate equilibrium super elevation if pressure on inner and outer wheels should be equal.
50
Answer
Given, R = 100m
127x
f= ² = 0.197
100
V²
V = 50kmph
127
f = 0.15 c. If f =
0, e = R
𝐕 50
𝟏𝟐𝟕 127² x
a. If V is in =f+e e= = 0.197
100
²
kmph, 𝐑
V² 50²
127R 127 x 100
e= -f= - 0.15 = 0.047

V²
127
b. If e =
0,
89f = R
Questionthe
Design 2 rate of super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500m and
speed
100kmph.

Answer Given, R = 500m f < 0.15

V = 100kmph Hence ok
V² 100²
225R 225 x
e= = = 0.089
500
e > 0.07
V²
127
Put e = 0.07, e + f =
R
100
127
² x
0.07 + f =
500
90
f = 0.087
Question3
Design speed is 80kmph. Radius is 200m. Design allowable
speed.

Answer Given, R = 200m f > 0.15

V = 80kmph e = 0.07
V² 80²
225R 225 x
e= = = 0.14 f = 0.15
200
e > 0.07 Va = 27.94R

V² = 27.94 x 200 =
127
Put e = 0.07, e + f = 74.75kmph
R
80
127² x
0.07 + f =
200
91
f = 0.18
 Attainment of Super
elevation
Full SE is attained by the end of transition curve or at the start
of circular curve.

Attainment of SE may be split into two parts:

a. Elimination of crown of cambered section

b. Rotation of pavement

92
 Attainment of Super elevation
a. Elimination of crown of cambered section

This may be done by 2 methods.

i. In first method, outer half of cross slope is rotated

about crown. The disadvantage is that surface
drainage is not proper at outer edge.

ii. In second method known as diagonal crown

method, crown is progressively shifted outwards.

93
 Attainment of Super elevation
b. Rotation of pavement

This may be done by 2 methods.

E
i. By rotating the pavement c/s about centre line, depressing the inner edge
2
and raising outer edge each by half the total amount of SE, ie by E with
2 E
2
respect to the centre. In this method earthwork
is
Disadvantage- balanced.
Drainage problems occurs due to depressing of inner
edge below the general level.

ii. By rotating the pavement c/s about inner edge of pavement section, raising
E
both the centre as well as outer edge by the full amount of SE, E with
respect to inner edge. This method is preferable in very flat terrain in
high rainfall areas.
94
Question 1
A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal curve of radius 480m. Design super elevation. By
how much amount the outer edge should be raised above center line, if pavement is rotated about center
line.
Width of pavement is 7.5m
Answer
Given, R = 480m
E

2
V = 80kmph
E
V² 80²
225R 225 x
e= = = 0.059 2

480
e < 0.07
Hence ok, i.e. e = 0.059 If pavement is rotated about centre line, the
height
E
e=B of outer edge above centre line = e B = 0.44 =
2 2
0.22m
E = eB = 0.059 x 7.5 = 0.44
95
 Radius of Horizontal
Curve
▪ For a certain speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is dependent on radius of
horizontal curve. Centrifugal force is counteracted by ‘e’ & ‘f’ and is given by the
relation.
V²
127
e+f=
R
▪ Maximum allowable ‘e’ is fixed and f = 0.15. So if ‘V’ is decided, R can be found
by the following relation.
▪ Ruling minimum radius for ruling design speed V,

RRulin =
V²
127(e+f
g )
96
 Radius of Horizontal Curve
▪Absolute minimum radius for minimum design speed V',

V '2

RMin =
127(e+f)

• V – Ruling design speed in kmph

• V1- Minimum design speed in kmph

• e – rate of super elevation, e = 0.07 or e = 0.1

97
• f – coefficient of friction, f = 0.15
Question 2
Calculate value of ruling minimum and absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve of NH in plain
terrain.
Ruling design speed = 100kmph
Minimum design speed =
80kmph
V '2
RMin =
Answer
Given, 127(e+f)

V1= 100kmph 802

V
127(0.07+0.1
= = 229.06m
= 80kmph 5)

e = 0.07
f = 0.15
RRulin =
V²
127(e+f
g )
100
127(0.07+0.1
= ² = 357.9m
5)
98
Widening of pavement on horizontal curves -
EXTRAWIDENING

99
Widening of pavement on horizontal curves -
EXTRAWIDENING

Reasons for providing extra width

i. Automobiles have rigid wheel base and only front wheels can be turned. When this vehicle
takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, rear wheels do not follow the same path as of
front wheels. This phenomenon is called off-tracking.

If inner front wheel takes a path on inner edge of pavement at curves, inner rear wheel will be
off the pavement on inner shoulder. Off-tracking depends on length of wheel base, turning
angle, radius of curve.

100
Widening of pavement on horizontal curves -
EXTRAWIDENING

Reasons for providing extra width

ii. If speeds are higher than design speed, when e and f cannot counteract the
outward thrust, skidding may occur and rear wheels may take paths on
outside of pavement.

iii. Path traced by trailer units, can also be on side of the centre line of towing
vehicle.

101
Widening of pavement on horizontal curves -
EXTRAWIDENING

Reasons for providing extra width

iv. In order to take curved path with large radii and to

have visibility, drivers have tendency to use the outside of curve.

v. While vehicles overtake at curves, there a psychological tendency to maintain

greater clearance between vehicles than on straight roads.

102
 Analysis of Extrawidening
i. Mechanical widening

The widening required to account for off-tacking due to rigidity of wheel base called
mechanical widening, Wm

Wm = nl²
2
R
Where, n – number of lanes

I – length of wheel base

R – mean radius of curve

103
 Analysis of Extrawidening
ii. Psychological widening

Extra width provided for psychological reasons such as to provide greater

manoeuvrability of steering at higher speeds to allow for the extra space is called
psychological widening, Wps
V
Wps = 9.5

Total extra width, We = Wm + R

Wps
We = nl² + V
2R 9.5
R
104
 Analysis of
Extrawidening
• Widening may be introduced gradually from starting of transition curve and is
increased at uniform rate till full We is reached at the end of transition
curve. Full value is continued through out the circular curve and
decreased along transition curve. Widening is distributed on either side of the
curve.
• On horizontal curve without transition curve, two-thirds the widening is
provided at the end of the straight section and remaining one-third
widening is provided on the circular curve portion. In such cases widening is
provided on the inner side of curve.
105
 Extra width of pavements at horizontal
curves
Radius(m) Upto 2m 21 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 100 101 to 300 >300

Extrawidth(m)
2-lane 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 Nil

1-lane 0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil Nil

106
Question 2
Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7m on a horizontal curve of radius 250m if the
longest wheel base of vehicle expected on the road is 7m. Design speed is 70kmph. Compare the value
obtained
with IRC recommendation.

We = nl² +
Answer
Given,

V
We
2x 7
Since the pavement width is
27² 9.50
2Rx
+ = 0.662m
250
7m, n = 2
9.5 R
l = 7m = 250

V = 70kmph
R = 250m

107
Question 3
Find the total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for a new national highway to be aligned along a
rolling
terrain with a ruling minimum radius. Assume necessary data.

RRulin =
V²
127(e+f
Answer
g )
Assume the following data,
i. NH on rolling terrain, Ruling
= 80²
127(0.07+0.1
= 5)
229.06m
design speed, V = 80kmph

We = nl² + V
2R
ii. Normal pavement width = 7m
2 x 6² R 80
9.5
2 x 229.06 9.5
iii. No: of lanes, n = 2 = + = 0.71m
iv. Wheel base of the truck, l = 6m 229.06
Total pavement width = 7 + 0.71 = 7.71m
v. e = 0.07 , f = 0.15
108
 Horizontal Transition
Curve
• A transition curve is a curve in plan which is provided to change horizontal
alignment from straight to circular curve.

• A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity to radius of

circular curve. When a transition curve is introduced between straight road
and circular curve, radius decreases and becomes minimum at start of
circular curve.

• Rate of change of radius depends on shape of curve.

109
 Objectives of providing transition
curve
▪Sudden introduction of circular curve after straight portion will cause the
introduction of centrifugal force suddenly and will result in sudden jerk and
discomfort – to introduce centrifugal force gradually.

▪ To enable the driver to steer vehicle with comfort and safety.

▪To gradually introduce superelevation and extra widening.

▪To improve the aesthetic appearance of road.

110
 Condition for ideal
shape
▪Should be such that rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration or rate of introduction of centrifugal force should be
consistent.

▪ Radius should consistently decrease from infinity to radius of curve.

▪ Length of transition curve should be inversely proportional to radius.

▪ Spiral transition fulfills the requirements.

111
 Types of transition curve
a) Spiral / Clothoid

b) Lemniscate

c) Cubic parabola

• All curves follow almost the same path upto deflection angle of 4º and there is significant difference upto 9º.

• For deflection > 4º rate of change of centrifugal force is not consistent in case of cubic parabola and lemniscate.

• In spiral curve, rate of introduction of centrifugal force is constant and length is inversely proportional to radius
of the curve. So it fulfills condition of ideal curve.

• It is easy to setout in field and geometric calculations are easy. So IRC suggests spiral as ideal curve.

112
 Length of transition curve
▪It is designed to fulfill three conditions:

i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration developed gradually.

ii. Rate of introduction of super elevation at reasonable rate.

iii. Minimum length by IRC empirical formula.

113
 Length of transition
curve
i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration developed

gradually a = V²
R
At the start of tangent point, a = 0, Since, R = ∞.
At the end, R has minimum value Rm.

V²
a=
Rm

centrifugal acceleration is distributed over length Ls. Let ‘Ls’ be length of transition
t = LVs
Hence
curve in metre. If ‘t’ is time taken in sec to traverse transition length at uniform speed ‘V’. m/s.
Maximum centrifugal acceleration = V² R
in
time ‘t’.
114
 Length of transition
curve
V2
R
t
Rate ofcentrifugal acceleration =

2
V
xV V3
L sR
C= m/s³
=
Maximum R
allowable Ls rate of centrifugal acceleration without
producing discomfort is dependent on speed and inversely proportional to
8
0
radius R.
75+
IRC recommends following equation for, C =
3 V
Ls = V
𝐶
R
If V is in kmph, Ls
Ls - length of transition curve in m
V3
46.5C
R
C – allowable rate of acceleration in
115 =
m/s² R – radius of curve in m
 Length of transition curve
ii. Rate of introduction of super elevation at reasonable rate

Maximum rate of introduction of super elevation is 1 in 150.

So Ls is equal to 150 times total amount by which outer edge of pavement to be raised with
respect to centre line.

If 1 in N is rate of super elevation, Ls = E x N

Ls = e BN

Ls = e(W+We)N If pavement rotated about inner edge.

Ls 2 =e1 e(W+W )N If pavement is rotated about centre
line.
116
 Length of transition curve
iii. Minimum length by IRC empirical
formula
2
For plain and rolling terrain, Ls = 2.7 VR
2
For mountainous and steep terrain, s = V
R
L
Length of transition curve is higher of the above three.

24
Shift of transition curve, S =
Ls ²
R
117
Question 1
Calculate the length of transition curve and shift using the given data, design speed-65kmph, allowable rate
of
introduction of super elevation- 1 in 150 (Pavement rotated about centre line), Radius of horizontal curve

Ls V3 653
46.5CR 46.5 x 0.57 x
Answer
= 220m , Pavement width-7.5m(including extrawidening) = = 47.1m
220
Given,
V = 65kmph ii.
= Length of transition curve by rate of introduction

Ls
1 in N = 1 in 150 super elevation at reasonable rate.
=1 e
B = W+We = 2
e(W+W )N
V2 652
225R 225 x
7.5m R = 220m e= = = 0.085
80 80 220
75+V
C= = = 0.57 e>0.07
75+65
i. Length of transition curve by rate of change of Put e = 0.07
centrifugal acceleration developed gradually.
118
Answer

V2
127
e+f= iii. Minimum length of transition curve by IRC
R
652
empirical formula
V2
127 127 x 2 2
Ls
f= - 0.07 = - 0.07 = 0.08
R 220 =R2.7 V =220
2.7 x 65 =

Length of transition curve, Ls = 51.85m

f < 0.15
51.85m
Hence e = 0.07
51.85
Ls 2 =e1
Ls ²
Shift, S = 24R= ²24 x = 0.51m
220

Ls 2 =1 x 0.07 x 7.5 x 150 =

e(W+W )N

39.375m

119
Question
A 2 through rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500m. Design
NH passing
the
length of transition curve assuming suitable
data.

Ls V3 803
46.5CR 46.5 x 0.52 x
= = 42.3m
500
Answer
Given, ii.= Length of transition curve by rate of introduction of
For NH on rolling super elevation.

Ls = e(W+We)N
terrain, V = 80kmph
1 in N = 1 in 150
e= V2 80=2 0.057
225R
=
225 x 500
W= 7m

80 80
R = 500m
e<0.07
75+V
C= = = 0.52
75+80 Put e = 0.057
i. Length of transition curve by rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration.
120
 = nl² + V
Answer

We
2R
9.5 R
iii. Minimum length of transition curve by IRC
2 x 6² 80
We
empirical formula
500
= 0.45m
2 x 500 2 2
L Ls
=

+ s =e(W+We)N =R2.7 V =500

2.7 x 80
9.5
=

Ls =0.057 x (7+0.45) x 150 = 63.7m Length of transition curve, Ls = 63.7m

34.56m

121
Question
1
While aligning a highway in a built up area, it was necessary to provide a horizontal circular curve of radius 325m.
Design
the following geometric features:
i. Super elevation
ii. Extra widening of pavement
iii. Length of transition curve
Data available are
Design speed=65kmph, Length of wheel base of largest truck =6m, pavement width = 10.5m

Answer i. Super
Given,
elevation
V 2 652
225R 225 x
V = 65kmph e= = = 0.058
l = 6m 325
e < 0.07
W= 10.5m Hence, e = 0.058
122
R = 325m
 of
ii. Extra widening of by rate
We = nl² + V
pavement centrifugal developed
2R
of
n= 3, 9.5
since WR = 10.5m gradually
acceleration
l = 6m
Ls 3
V= 653

We
3 x 6² 65 46.5CR 46.5 x 0.57 x
= 31.88m
2 x 325 9.5
+ = 0.55m 325
=
325 ii. Length of transition curve by rate of introduction of
=
L = 1 e(W+W )N
iii. Length of transition super elevation at reasonable rate.

80 80 2
curve
S
75+ 75+6 e
C= = = 0.57
V 5 e = 0.058
1 in N = 1 in 100(for built up areas)
Ls =1 x 0.058 x (10.5+0.55)x 100 =
2
123 32.05
iii. Minimum length of transition curve by IRC
empirical formula
2 2
Ls = R2.7 V = 325
2.7 x 65 =
Length of transition curve, Ls = 35.1m
35.1m

124
 Homework
A state highway passing through a rolling terrain has a
horizontal curve of radius to the ruling minimum radius.
i. Design all the geometric features of this
curve, assuming suitable data.

125
 Vertical
alignment(Introduction)
⮚ While aligning a highway it is the general practice to follow the general topography
or profile of land.
⮚ But the natural ground may be level only at some places and otherwise the ground
may have slopes of varying magnitude.

⮚ Hence the vertical profile of a road would have level stretches as well as slopes or

grades.

⮚ In order to have smooth vertical movements on the roads, the changes in the grade

should be smoothened out by vertical curves.

⮚ The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road.
126
 Vertical
alignment(Introduction)
⮚ Vertical alignment consists of:
i. Gradients
ii. Vertical curves
⮚ Vertical alignment influences:
• Speed of vehicle
• Acceleration, deceleration of vehicle
• SD, SSD
• Comfort in vehicle movements at high
speed

127
 Vertical
alignment(Introduction)
The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients(straight lines in a vertical plane)
and vertical curves.
The vertical alignment is usually drawn as a profile, which is a graph with elevation as
vertical axis and the horizontal distance along the centre line of the road as the the
horizontal axis.

128