King Abdulaziz University

Cyber Security Diploma

Week (1) Session (1)

Basic Cryptography
CYB-232

Module 1: Cryptographic
Security Functions

Spring2021
2020-2021
 Focus of This Session
Break
Basic Classical Ciphers
Cryptography

Introduction
To Security Classical Cipher
Drawbacks

Lab Activities

This Week OBJECTIVES:

1. ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Week (5) Session (1) 2
 Outline
Introduction to Cybersecurity

Introduction to Cryptography

Classical Cipher

From Classical to Modern Cipher

Lab Activity

Week (1) Session (1) 3

 King Abdulaziz University
Cyber Security Diploma

Source of Slides and Refs:

• Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell,
Introduction to Modern
Cryptography, (Chapter 1)
• Cryptography and Network
Security, 7/e, by William Stallings Introduction to
(Chapter 1)
• Types of Attacks Or Security Attac Cybersecurity
ks -
TechBlogMU
The field of network and
cybersecurity consists of:

measures to deter,
prevent, detect, and
correct security
violations that involve
the transmission of
information
 Computer Security

The NIST Computer Security Handbook

defines the term computer security as:
“the protection afforded to an
automated information system in order
to attain the applicable objectives of
preserving the integrity, availability and
confidentiality of information system
resources” (includes hardware,
software, firmware, information/ data,
and telecommunications)
Computer Security Objectives

Confidentiality
• Data confidentiality
• Assures that private or confidential information is not made available or disclosed to
unauthorized individuals
• Privacy
• Assures that individuals control or influence what information related to them may be
collected and stored and by whom and to whom that information may be disclosed

Integrity
• Data integrity
• Assures that information and programs are changed only in a specified and authorized
manner
• System integrity
• Assures that a system performs its intended function in an unimpaired manner, free
from deliberate or inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of the system

Availability
• Assures that systems work promptly and service is not denied to authorized
users
 OSI Security Architecture

 Security attack
 Any action that compromises the security of
information owned by an organization
 Security mechanism
 A process (or a device incorporating such a process)
that is designed to detect, prevent, or recover from
a security attack
 Security service
 A processing or communication service that
enhances the security of the data processing
systems and the information transfers of an
organization
 Intended to counter security attacks, and they
make use of one or more security mechanisms to
provide the service
 Table 1.1
Threats and Attacks (RFC 4949)
Security Attacks
•A means of classifying security
attacks, used both in X.800 and
RFC 4949, is in terms of passive
attacks and active attacks
•A passive attack attempts to
learn or make use of information
from the system but does not
affect system resources
•An active attack attempts to
alter system resources or affect
their operation

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Passive Attacks

• Are in the nature of

eavesdropping on, or
monitoring of, transmissions
• Goal of the opponent is to
obtain information that is
being transmitted • Two types of passive
attacks are:
• The release of
message contents
• Traffic analysis
 Active Attacks
 Involve some modification of
the data stream or the • Takes place when one entity pretends
to be a different entity
creation of a false stream Masquerade • Usually includes one of the other
 Difficult to prevent because forms of active attack
of the wide variety of
potential physical, software,
• Involves the passive capture of a data
and network vulnerabilities
unit and its subsequent
 Goal is to detect attacks and Replay retransmission to produce an
unauthorized effect
to recover from any
disruption or delays caused
by them • Some portion of a legitimate message
Modification is altered, or messages are delayed or
reordered to produce an
of messages unauthorized effect

• Prevents or inhibits the normal use or

Denial of management of communications
service facilities
 Type of Attacks

 Interception
 Interruption
 Modification
 Fabrication
 Interception (eavesdropping)
 Unauthorized party gains access to service or data

 Example:
Wiretapping to capture data into a network and coping of files

Types of Attacks Or Security Attacks - TechBlogMU

 Interruption (denial of service)
 Services or data become unavailable

 Examples:
Destruction of a piece of hardware, cutting of cable and
disabling of a file management system, or using bots for
DDoS attack

Types of Attacks Or Security Attacks - TechBlogMU

 Modification
 Unauthorized party changes the data or tampers with the
service
 Examples:
Changing values in a file, altering a program so that it performs
differently and changing the contents of messages that are
sent over the network

Types of Attacks Or Security Attacks - TechBlogMU

 Fabrication

 Unauthorized party generates additional data or activity

 Examples
Hacker gaining access to a person’s email and sending
messages, and adding records to a file

Types of Attacks Or Security Attacks - TechBlogMU

Security Mechanisms (X.800)

Specific Security Mechanisms

• Encipherment
• Digital signatures
• Access controls
• Data integrity
• Authentication exchange Pervasive Security Mechanisms
• Traffic padding • Trusted functionality
• Routing control • Security labels
• Notarization • Event detection
• Security audit trails
• Security recovery
 Table 1.3

Security
Mechanisms
(X.800)

(This table is found on pages

14-15 in textbook)
Model for Network Security
 Summary
 Computer  Security services
security concepts  Authentication
 Definition  Access control
 Examples  Data
 Challenges confidentiality
 Data integrity
 The OSI security  Nonrepudiation
architecture  Availability
 Security attacks service
 Passive attacks  Security
 Active attacks mechanisms
 Network security
model
 We will come back
After (5) minutes

Chapter (#) 23
 King Abdulaziz University
Cyber Security Diploma

Source of Slides and Refs:

• Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell,
Introduction to Modern
Cryptography,
• Cryptography and Network
Security, 7/e, by William Stallings Introduction to
Cryptography
 Definitions

Plaintext Ciphertext Enciphering/

• An original message • The coded message
encryption
• The process of converting
from plaintext to
ciphertext

Deciphering/ Cryptography Cryptographic

decryption • The area of study of the system/cipher
• Restoring the plaintext many schemes used for • A scheme
from the ciphertext encryption

Cryptanalysis Cryptology
• Techniques used for • The areas of cryptography
deciphering a message and cryptanalysis
without any knowledge of
the enciphering details
 What is cryptography?

• kryptos – “hidden”
• grafo – “write”

• Keeping messages secret

• Usually by making the message unintelligible to anyone that intercepts it
 The Problem

Private Message

Bob Alice
Eavesdropping

Eve
 The Solution

Private Message Private Message

Encryption Decryption
Scrambled Message

Bob Alice
Eavesdropping

Eve
 What do we need?

Nonsense

• Bob and Alice want to be

able to encrypt/decrypt
easily Encryption Ciphertext Decryption
• But no one else should be
able to decrypt
• How do we do this?
• Keys!

Plaintext Plaintext
 Substitution Technique

 Is one in which the letters of plaintext

are replaced by other letters or by
numbers or symbols
 If the plaintext is viewed as a sequence
of bits, then substitution involves
replacing plaintext bit patterns with
ciphertext bit patterns
 The Shift (Substitution) Cipher
• We “shift” each letter over by a certain amount

Plaintext
five red balloons

Key = 3 Encryption
f+3=I
i+3=L
v+3=Y
…

ILYH UHG EDOORRQV Ciphertext

 The Shift (Substitution) Cipher
• To decrypt, we just subtract the key

ILYH UHG EDOORRQV Ciphertext

Key = 3 Decryption
I-3=f
L-3=i
Y-3=v
…

five red balloons Plaintext

 What’s wrong with the shift cipher?

• Not enough keys!

• If we shift a letter 26 times, we get the same letter back
• A shift of 27 is the same as a shift of 1, etc.
• So we only have 25 keys (1 to 25)
• Eve just tries every key until she finds the right one
The Monoalphabetic Cipher

• Rather than having a fixed Plaintext Ciphertext

shift, change every plaintext
letter to an arbitrary a G
ciphertext letter b X
c N
d S
e D
… …
z Q
 The Monoalphabetic Cipher

Plaintext
a G n B five red balloons
b X o Y
c N p Z
d S q P
Key = e D r H
f A s W f =A Encryption
g F t I i =L
h V
u J
v =R
i L …
v R
j M
w U
k C
x K
l O
y T ALRD HDS XGOOYYBW Ciphertext
m E
z Q
 The Monoalphabetic Cipher
• To decrypt we just look up the ciphertext letter in the table and then write
down the matching plaintext letter

• How many keys do we have now?

• A key is just a permutation of the letters of the alphabet
• There are 26! permutations
• 403291461126605635584000000
• What’s wrong with this substitution Cipher?
 Transposition Ciphers

now consider classical transposition or permutation ciphers

these hide the message by rearranging the letter order
without altering the actual letters used
can recognise these since have the same frequency distribution as
the original text
 Frequency Analysis

• In English (or any language) certain letters are used more often than others

• If we look at a ciphertext, certain ciphertext letters are going to appear more

often than others

• It would be a good guess that the letters that occur most often in the ciphertext
are actually the most common English letters
 Letter Frequency

• This is the letter

frequency for English
• The most common
letter is ‘e’ by a large
margin, followed by
‘t’, ‘a’, and ‘o’
• ‘J’, ‘q’, ‘x’, and ‘z’
hardly occur at all
 Example Cryptanalysis

• given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ

• count relative letter frequencies (see text)

• guess P & Z are e and t
• guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is the
• proceeding with trial and error finally get:
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but
direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow
 Summary
 The need for  Monoalphabetic
Cryptography Cipher
 How does  Transposition
Cryptography Ciphers
work  Frequency Analysis
 Substitution  Letter Frequency
Cipher
 King Abdulaziz University
Cyber Security Diploma

Source of Slides and Refs:

• Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell,
Introduction to Modern
Cryptography,
• Cryptography and Network
Security, 7/e, by William Stallings Classical Cipher
Cryptographic algorithms and protocols can be grouped into four main
areas:

Symmetric encryption

• Used to conceal the contents of blocks or streams of data of any size,

including messages, files, encryption keys, and passwords

Asymmetric encryption

• Used to conceal small blocks of data, such as encryption keys and hash
function values, which are used in digital signatures

Data integrity algorithms

• Used to protect blocks of data, such as messages, from alteration

Authentication protocols

• Schemes based on the use of cryptographic algorithms designed to

authenticate the identity of entities
 Symmetric Cipher Model
 There are two requirements for secure use of
conventional encryption:
 A strong encryption algorithm

 Sender and receiver must have obtained copies of the

secret key in a secure fashion and must keep the key
secure
 Caesar Cipher

 Simplest and earliest known use of a

substitution cipher
 Used by Julius Caesar
 Involves replacing each letter of the alphabet
with the letter standing three places further
down the alphabet
 Alphabet is wrapped around so that the letter
following Z is A
plain: meet me after the toga
party
cipher: PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD
SDUWB
 Caesar Cipher Algorithm

 Can define transformation as:

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
 Mathematically give each letter a number
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

 Algorithm can be expressed as:

c = E(3, p) = (p + 3) mod (26)

 A shift may be of any amount, so that the general

Caesar algorithm is:
C = E(k , p ) = (p + k ) mod 26
 Where k takes on a value in the range 1 to 25; the
decryption algorithm is simply:
p = D(k , C ) = (C - k ) mod 26
 Figure 3.3

Brute-Force
Cryptanalysis
of
Caesar Cipher
(This chart can be found on page 75 in the
textbook)
 Playfair Cipher

 Best-known multiple-letter encryption

cipher
 Treats digrams in the plaintext as single
units and translates these units into
ciphertext digrams
 Based on the use of a 5 x 5 matrix of letters
constructed using a keyword
 Invented by British scientist Sir Charles
Wheatstone in 1854
 Used as the standard field system by the
British Army in World War I and the U.S.
Army and other Allied forces during World
War II
 Playfair Key Matrix

 Fill in letters of keyword (minus

duplicates) from left to right and from top
to bottom, then fill in the remainder of
the matrix with the remaining letters in
alphabetic order
 Using the keyword MONARCHY:
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
 Polyalphabetic Ciphers

 Polyalphabetic substitution cipher

 Improves on the simple monoalphabetic
technique by using different monoalphabetic
substitutions as one proceeds through the
plaintext message

All these techniques have the following features

in common:
• A set of related monoalphabetic substitution
rules is used
• A key determines which particular rule is
chosen for a given transformation
 Vigenère Cipher

 Best known and one of the simplest

polyalphabetic substitution ciphers
 In this scheme the set of related
monoalphabetic substitution rules
consists of the 26 Caesar ciphers with
shifts of 0 through 25
 Each cipher is denoted by a key letter
which is the ciphertext letter that
substitutes for the plaintext letter a
 Example of Vigenère Cipher
 To encrypt a message, a key is needed that is as
long as the message
 Usually, the key is a repeating keyword
 For example, if the keyword is deceptive, the
message “we are discovered save yourself” is
encrypted as:
key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext: ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
 Vigenère Autokey System

 A keyword is concatenated with the

plaintext itself to provide a running key
 Example:
key: deceptivewearediscoveredsav
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext: ZICVTWQNGKZEIIGASXSTSLVVWLA
 Even this scheme is vulnerable to
cryptanalysis
 Because the key and the plaintext share the
same frequency distribution of letters, a
statistical technique can be applied
Vernam Cipher
 One-Time Pad

 Improvement to Vernam cipher proposed by an

Army Signal Corp officer, Joseph Mauborgne
 Use a random key that is as long as the message
so that the key need not be repeated
 Key is used to encrypt and decrypt a single
message and then is discarded
 Each new message requires a new key of the same
length as the new message
 Scheme is unbreakable
 Produces random output that bears no statistical
relationship to the plaintext
 Because the ciphertext contains no information
whatsoever about the plaintext, there is simply no way
to break the code
 Rail Fence Cipher

 Simplest transposition cipher

 Plaintext is written down as a sequence
of diagonals and then read off as a
sequence of rows
 To encipher the message “meet me
after the toga party” with a rail fence of
depth 2, we would write:
mematrhtgpry
etefeteoaat
Encrypted message is:
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
 Row Transposition Cipher

 Is a more complex transposition

 Write the message in a rectangle, row by row,
and read the message off, column by column,
but permute the order of the columns
 The order of the columns then becomes the key to
the algorithm
Key: 4312 5 67
Plaintext: atta c kp
ostpone
dunt i l t
w o a mx y z
Ciphertext:
TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ
 Summary
 Symmetric  Substitution
Cipher Model techniques
 Cryptography  Caesar cipher
 Cryptanalysis  Monoalphabetic
and Brute-Force ciphers
Attack  Playfair cipher
 Transposition  Hill cipher
techniques  Polyalphabetic
ciphers
 Rotor machines
 One-time pad
 Steganography
 We will come back
After (5) minutes

Chapter (#) 59
 King Abdulaziz University
Cyber Security Diploma

Source of Slides and Refs:

• Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell,
Introduction to Modern
Cryptography,

From Classical to
Modern Cipher
 Classical to Modern Cryptography

• Classical cryptography
• Encryption/decryption done by hand
• Modern cryptography
• Computers to encrypt and decrypt
• Same principles, but automation allows ciphers
to become much more complex
 The Enigma Machine

• German encryption and

decryption machine
used in WWII
• Essentially a complex,
automated substitution
cipher
 How did Enigma work?

• Rotors have different

wiring connecting input to
output

• Rotors move after each

keypress

• The key is the initial

position of the three rotors
 Breaking the Enigma

• Britain set up its cryptanalysis team in Bletchley Park

• They consistently broke German codes throughout the war
• Important location in the history of computing
• Alan Turing: British Cryptanalyst
• COLOSSUS: used by British codebreakers for Cryptanalysis
 Cryptography in the Computer Age

• Working with binary instead of letters

• We can do things many, many times

• Think of an Enigma machine that has 2128 pairs of symbols on each rotor, and
20 rotors

• Other than that, the basic principles are the same as classical cryptography
 Modern Ciphers

• We design one relatively simple scrambling method (called a round) and repeat it
many times
• Think of each round as a rotor on the Enigma
• One round may be easy to break, but when you put them all together it
becomes very hard

• Almost all ciphers follow one of two structures

• SPN (Substitution Permutation Network)
• Feistel Network (basis for DES)
• These describe the basic structure of a round
 Modern Ciphers in Practice

• Follow SPN/Feistel structure in general, but with added twists for security

• There are two important ciphers in the history of modern cryptography

• DES (Data Encryption Standard)
• AES (Advanced Encryption Standard)
 DES

• U.S. Government recognized the need to have a standardized cipher for secret
documents
• DES was developed by IBM in 1976
• Analysis of DES was the beginning of modern cryptographic research
 Breaking DES

• The key length of DES was too short

• If a key is 56 bits long, that means there are 256 possible keys
• “DES Cracker” machines were designed to simply try all possible keys
• Increase key length to 128 bit
• Triple DES
 Breaking DES

• DES was further weakened by the discovery of differential

cryptanalysis
• Biham and Shamir in 1990; The most significant advance in
cryptanalysis since frequency analysis

• Ideally a ciphertext should be completely random, there should

be no connection to its matching plaintext
• Differential analysis exploits the fact that this is never actually
the case; Uses patterns between plaintext and ciphertext to
discover the key
 Developing the AES

• With DES effectively broken, a new standard was needed

• In 2001, the Rijndael cipher was selected to become the Advanced Encryption
Standard
The Problem of Symmetric Key Cryptography

• Up until now we’ve been talking about symmetric key

cryptography
• Alice and Bob are using the same key to encrypt/decrypt

• Problem: How does Bob get the key to Alice when Eve is
eavesdropping?

• Up until 1976 the only solution was to physically give Alice

the key in a secure environment
 Summary
 The Enigma Machine
 Breaking the Enigma Machine
 DES
 Breaking the DES
 AES
 The problem with AES
 King Abdulaziz University
Cyber Security Diploma

Source of Slides and Refs:

Lab Activity
 CrypTool Features

1. What is CrypTool?
 Freeware program with graphical user interface

 Cryptographic methods can be applied and analysed

 Comprehensive online help (understandable without a deep knowledge of

cryptography)
 Contains nearly all state-of-the-art cryptography functions

 Easy entry into modern and classical cryptography

 Not a “hacker tool”

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 75

2. Why CrypTool?
 Originated in an awareness initiative of a financial institute

 Developed in close cooperation with universities

 Improvement of university education and in-firm training

3. Target group
 Core group: Students of computer science, business computing, and mathematics

 But also for: computer users, application developers, employees, high school students, etc.

 Prerequisite: PC knowledge

 Preferable: Interest in mathematics and/or programming

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 76

 Abbreviations

CT CrypTool (means the project)

CT1 CrypTool v1

CT2 CrypTool v2

JCT JavaCrypTool

CTO CrypTool-Online (apply crypto in

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 77

 Cryptanalysis

 The art of trying to decrypt the encrypted messages without the use of the key that was used
to encrypt the messages.

 The following is a list of the commonly used Cryptanalysis attacks;

• Brute force attack– this type of attack uses algorithms that try to guess all the possible
logical combinations of the plaintext which are then ciphered and compared against the
original cipher.

• Dictionary attack– this type of attack uses a wordlist in order to find a match of either the
plaintext or key. It is mostly used when trying to crack encrypted passwords.

• Rainbow table attack– this type of attack compares the cipher text against pre-computed
hashes to find matches.
Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 78
 Classical cryptography
• Caesar
• Monoalphabetic substitution
• Ciphertext only:
Vigenère
Caesar ‐ Vigenère -
• Playfair Permutation /
Substitution ‐ Playfair
Transposition (Rail
• Known Plaintext Fence,
Cryptography Scytale, etc.)
column transposition
Attack on classical • Manual :Mono
1
methods alphabetical
Cryptanalysis substitution ‐ Playfair
Supported analysis
methods

Modern • DES,3DES
symmetric • AES
encryption
Feature Cryptography
Asymmetric • RSA
2
encryption • RSA with X.509
Cryptanalysis

• Brute-force
• Digital signature
Cryptography attack on
• Hash function
symmetric
algorithms
3
Cryptanalysis • • Attack on RSA
Attack on RSA signature
• Attack on hash functionsencryption

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 79

 CrypTool (CT1)

 A free Windows program for cryptography and cryptanalysis.

 Available in 6 languages, and it is the most widespread e-learning software of its kind.

 The current version of CrypTool (CT1) offers among other things:

• Numerous classic and modern cryptographic algorithms (encryption and decryption, key
generation, secure passwords, authentication, secure protocols, etc.)

• Visualization of several algorithms (Caesar, Enigma, RSA, Diffie-Hellman, digital signatures, AES,
etc.)

• Cryptanalysis of several algorithms (Vigenère, RSA, AES, etc.)

• Cryptanalytical measurement methods (entropy, n-grams, autocorrelation, etc.)

• Related auxiliary methods (primality tests, factorization, base64 encoding, etc.)

• Number theory tutorial

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 80
• Comprehensive online help
 How to downloaded it

CT1: https://www.cryptool.org/en/ct1/downloads

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 81

 Screenshots

Inner working of digital signatures Examine variants of the RSA algorithm Analysis of the monoalphabetic substitution
cipher

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 82

 CT1- Crypto Applications: Stream cipher

Plain text :
Never underestimate the determination of a kid who is time-rich and cash-poor

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 83

Analyzing Cipher example: Stream cipher

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 84

 CT1- Crypto Applications: Caesar

Plaintext

Ciphertext Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 85

 Analyzing Cipher example: Caesar

Ciphertext

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 86

 CT1- Crypto Applications: Vignere

by using the CT1, use the following information in order to find the cipher
 Plaintext: The Ethical Hackers-003
 Keyword: KEY
 Ciphertext ?

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 87

 CT1- Crypto Applications: Playfair

by using the CT1, use the following information in order to find the cipher

 Plaintext: The difference between stupidity and genius is that genius has its
limits.

 Keyword: Albert Einstein

 5*5 matrix

 Ciphertext ?

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 88

Lab Homework
Recognizing and Breaking Ciphers for The Same Text Encrypted Using Different
Ciphers

Chapter (#) 89
 Problem 1

In the next slide please find 3 ciphertexts of the same message encrypted using the following 3 classical ciphers
available in CrypTool 1: Caesar (shift cipher with k=3), Vigenere (shift cipher with k=HELLO), and Playfair (shift
cipher with k=PLAY). Do your best to match ciphertexts with a cipher that could have been used to obtain a given
ciphertext. If you are uncertain, you can list several ciphers per each ciphertext.

Find the corresponding plaintext, by trying each cipher with the corresponding key on each ciphertext.

Please note that spaces and punctuation characters have been removed before encryption. The ciphertext has
been divided into blocks of the size of 5 letters.

Week 1 - Session 2 – Lab Activity 90

 Ciphertexts

 Ciphertext 1:
ALPCS PWDZA LXSTB NKZZR PRLWZ ZIPXW UKQLW SYCPG FSFLF LRZEH
VWPPH OEEYC DXTXS DMWWF LZPLZ PXMPD HXTPB A
 Ciphertext 2:
WKHUH LVVRP HWKLQ JJRRG LQDOO VHHPL QJIDL OXUHV BRXDU HQRWW
RVHHW KDWQR ZWLPH ZLOOU HYHDO LWEHS DWLHQ W
 Ciphertext 3:
ON KW DK XY TQ KF ON KH FZ CT QC KH YA YQ FW FK KH CG LK PV WK XF UP EW
GK QO OQ RF GR KP ZT RU QN KF VK YV AQ DW KE DQ ZG CA BR KD TZ

Chapter (#) 91
 Building:-------
Room:

Contact:-----------

Email address:
[email protected]

Chapter (#) 92