Tunneling and underpinning,

piling, diaphragm and retailing

wall systems, vibro-replacement
and vibro-compaction
CVE 301 (2024/2025)
Tunnelling
Tunnels can be defined as
underground passages
constructed for the purpose
of transportation connection
between two points.
Type of Tunnels
There are many types of tunnels and can be
classified in many ways:
Shapes of Tunnel Lining
The shapes of tunnel linings are usually
determined by their purpose, ground
conditions, construction method and/or
lining materials.
Rectangular shape
Elliptical shape / Egg shape
Circular shape
Horseshoe / segmental shape
Rectangular shape
Rectangular shaped tunnels
It is particular suitable for
pedestrian and highway tunnels.
On the other hand, multi-lane
submerged highway tunnels are
often in rectangular shape.
Elliptical shape / Egg shape

Elliptical shape tunnels have the

advantages for the transportation of
sewer. The smaller cross section at the
bottom maintains the flow at the
required self cleaning velocity. However,
due to the difficulty in construction,
circular shape ones are more common.
Circular shape
A circular shape tunnel has
the greatest cross-
sectional area to perimeter
ratio. They are often
associated with TBM or the
shield tunnelling methods.
Horseshoe / segmental
shape
Horseshoe / segmental shape They
are commonly used for rock
tunnelling. It has the advantages
of utilizing the compressive
strength of concrete in resisting
the loading by means of arch
action and the base is wide
enough for traffic.
Tunnel lining materials
Permanent linings are required in most
tunnels, always in soft ground and
frequently in rock. They are required for
two purposes: structurally to retain the
earth and water pressure, and
operationally to provide an internal
surface appropriate to the function of
the tunnel.
The principal materials for
permanent lining of bored tunnels
are
Brickwork, blockwork and masonry
Insitu concrete
Preformed segments
Sprayed Concrete
Brickwork, blockwork and
masonry
Brickwork, blockwork and
masonry Brickwork,
blockwork and masonry
had been used for tunnel
lining but now they are
obsolete.
 Insitu concrete
Insitu concrete lining is frequently
in rock tunnelling where the roof is
able to stay unsupported
temporary. Specially designed
travelling formwork is used for
casting the concrete.
Preformed segments
Preformed segments may be made of cast
iron, steel or normal reinforced concrete.
This type of lining usually comes with TBM
or shield tunnelling methods. The
segments are jointed together by bolting
and the joints are sealed with neoprene
gasket. Voids behind the preformed
segments are filled by bentonite cement
grout.
 Sprayed concrete
Sprayed concrete linings usually compose
of rock bolts, wire mesh, steel ribs and a
thin layer or sprayed concrete. This kind of
lining is rather flexible than other types of
linings.
Tunnel Boring Machine
(TBM)
By definition, all machines used
for boring tunnels are tunnel
boring machines. However, a TBM
often refers to a large diameter
cylindrical shield, equipped with a
rotating cutterhead at the front, a
mucking device, and frequently
an automatic segment erector.
Tunnel Boring Machine
(TBM)
A tunnel boring machine is a
machine that can excavate
tunnels in a single operation,
called full-face drilling. It has a
rotating head with cutting parts
and runs on hydraulic or electric
motors, though its power supply is
Tunnel Boring Machine
(TBM)
To avoid the need of miners working
in compressed air and to eliminate
the risk of collapse of tunnel face,
tunnel boring machines (TBM) are
developed for such purpose.
 Advantages of Tunnel Boring
Machine
1. It offers a higher degree of precision and the entire operation can be completed
within a short period.
2. It is suitable for the construction of tunnels in high traffic areas and urbanized
areas.
3. It is designed to operate in various ground condition as it is capable of boring sand
to hard rocks.
4. It can also be used for the tunnel construction even in difficult conditions such as
below water table.
5. It offers greater structural stability and safety at the face as well as the work area.
6. It can be operated continuously.
7. It is capable of boring without causing significant disturbance to the surrounding
soil layers.
8. The operation of TBM is relatively consistent and less skilled.
9. It offers a better working environment compared to the conventional drilling and
blasting method.
10. The number of laborers required is also lesser.
 Disadvantages of Tunnel
Boring Machine
1. The main disadvantage of the tunnel boring machine is the
upfront cost. This is because the high cost is required for
the supporting accessories and equipment such as
conveyor belts, slurry separating plant, slurry pipelines, drill
bits, TBM cutters etc.
2. TBMs offer limited flexibility in terms of geological
extremities.
3. High backup systems are required for TBMs.
4. TBMs offer only fixed circular geometry and tunnel
diameter.
5. The mobilization time required is higher.
6. The machine is very heavy and transportation is difficult.
underpinning
 underpinning
In construction or renovation, underpinning is
the process of strengthening the foundation
of an existing building or other structure.
Underpinning may be necessary for a variety
of reasons: The original foundation isn't
strong or stable enough. The usage of the
structure has changed
 Purpose of Underpinning
Underpinning is done for the following purposes:
• For the purpose of leading an old shallow foundation to the
deeper depth when the adjoining building is constructed
with a deep foundation.
• Underpinning is done for building a basement in the
existing building.
• Underpinning is done to deepen the existing foundation
(resting on poor strata) and make it rest on deeper soil
strata of higher bearing capacity.
• To strengthen a settled foundation that may be caused by
cracks in the wall.
 Reasons for underpinning
• The original foundation isn't strong or stable enough.
• The usage of the structure has changed.
• The properties of the soil supporting the foundation may have changed
(possibly through subsidence) or were mischaracterized during design.
• The construction of nearby structures necessitates the excavation of soil
supporting existing foundations.
• To increase the depth or load capacity of existing foundations to support
the addition of another storey to the building (above or below grade).
• It is more economical, due to land price or otherwise, to work on the
present structure's foundation than to build a new one.
• Earthquake, flood, drought or other natural causes have caused the
structure to move, requiring stabilisation of foundation soils and/or
footings.
Methods of Underpinning (Personal
Assignment)
Underpinning can be carried but by the
following methods:
1.Pit method
2. Pile methods
3.Underpinning to walls
4.Jack pile underpinning
5.Needle and pile underpinning
6.‘Pynford’ Stool method of underpinning
7.Root pile or angle Piling Underpinning columns
Pit
Underpinning
Piling
Piles are structural members that are
made of steel, concrete, or timber. They
are used to build pile foundations, which
are deep and which cost more than
shallow foundations. Despite the cost,
the use of piles often is necessary to
ensure structural safety
A pile is a slender structural member
made of concrete, steel, wood or
composite material.
• A pile is either driven into the soil or
formed insite by excavating a hole and
filling it with concrete.
uses of the piles
1. The load of the super-structure is heavy and its distribution is
uneven.
2. The top soil has poor bearing capacity and the soil is weak, it
does not resist the loads distributed to it through other types of
foundations.
3.The subsoil water is high so that pumping of water from the open
trenches for the shallow foundation is difficult and uneconomical.
4. Large fluctuation in subsoil water level.
5. The structure is situated on sea shore or river bed, where there is
danger of scouring action of water.
6. Canal or deep drainage line exist near the foundation.
7. For foundation of transmission towers and off-shore platforms
which are subjected to uplift forces.
uses of the piles
8- When the soil is clayey with shrinkage and seasonal swelling
due to changes in soil moisture and groundwater movement in
its layers.
9- When the structure is above the water surface, such as
docks and water outlets.
10- When the foundations of the other types cannot be dug
deep, because there are adjacent buildings with foundations
close to the surface of the earth so that if the new foundation is
dug, the adjacent building will be exposed to cracking,
descending and collapse.
11- When it requires supporting and strengthening weak
foundations using jacked piles.
12- When it requires resistance to side loads resulting from
pushing soil or water reserves where sheet piles are often used.
uses of the piles
 13- In regions where earthquakes and earthquakes
abound, where the piles are more resistant than others,
and they are distributed in groups that communicate with
each other by reinforcing ligaments in one or two
directions.
 14- When it requires balancing the forces of tension,
pushing sideways, and they are called anchoring piles
when they are vertical (vertical) and are called diagonal
anchoring pillars when they are formed with a certain
inclination.
Factor Affecting Selection
Of pile Type
1. Nature and type of structure
2. Location
3. Material, equipment and fund availability
4. Type of soil and its properties
5. Ground water table
6. Durability of pile
7. Length and number of pile
8. Case study of adjacent building
9. Facility for pile driving
10. Erosion of soil near structure
Classification of Piles
 A. Based on function
 B. Based on materials
 C. Based on method of installation
 Classification of Piles
Based on function :
1. End bearing Pile
2. Friction Pile
3. Compaction Pile
4. Tension Pile
5. Anchor Pile
6. Fender(Guard) Pile
7. Better Pile
8. sheet Pile
End Pile bearing
 Penetrate through the soft soil
 Bottom or tips rest on hard strata
 Work as column
 For this pile Qu=Qp
 where,
 Qu=ultimate load
 Qp= Pile load
Friction pile
 Loose soil extend to a greater depth
 Pile are driven at depth when friction resistance developed
equal to load
 In that case Qu=Qs (Qs= skin friction)
 Total friction resistance can be increased by
 Increasing length and diameter
 Making Pile surface rough
 Placing closely or grouping of pile
Compaction pile
 • Pile do not carry any load
 • For increase the bearing capacity of soil
Classification Based on Pile Material

Concrete piles
Steel piles
Timber piles
Composite pile
Sand pile
 Most common causes of failure of piles:
 Absence of statistical data of nature of soil strata
 Load coming on pile is high than design load.
 Bad workmanship
 Attack by insets on wood.
 Breakage due to over driving ( timber pile
 Buckling of pile.
 Damage due to absence of protective cover.
 Improper type of pile, method of driving, classification of soil.
 Insufficient reinforcement in case of R. C. C
 Misinterpretation of result from pile load test.
 Wrong formula use for determining load bearing capacity.
DIAPHRAGM WALL
Diaphragm Wall
 :Diaphragm wall is an underground wall constructed from the ground level
to support excavation sides from lateral earth pressure and water pressure
and to provide water tightness to the underground structure.
Diaphragm Wall
 Diaphragm wall is generally reinforced concrete wall constructed in the
ground using under slurry technique.
 > The slurry forms a thick deposit on the wall of the trench which balances
the inward hydraulic forces & prevents water flow into the trench.
 > Thickness of the wall can be between 300mm to 1500mm.
 > Depth of the wall can go up to 50m.
Features
 :1. As a cut-off provision to support deep excavation.
 2 As a retaining wall.
 3.It is also used as a permanent basement walls for facilitating Top-down
construction method.
 4 Typical wall thickness varies between 0.6 to 1.5m
 5.Panel width varies from 2.5m to about 6.5m or even more depending on
various conditions.
COMMON USES OF
DIAPHRAGM
Structural support for the construction of building basements with
underground parking.
Add stability to landslides, highway cuts and deep building excavations
including circular shafts.
Provide retaining walls in areas where severe limitations may be posed by
noise, vibration, geology, water table and schedule.-
Provide deep diaphragms where geometric precision and continuity at depth
are vital for structural and hydraulic reasons.
Diaphragm Wall Application
 Commonly used in congested areas.
 > Can be installed in close proximity to existing structure.
 ➤ Practically suited for deep basements.
Construction procedure
 1. Construct the guide wall.
 2.Excavation to form the diaphragm wall trench.
 3. Support the trench cutting using bentonite slurry.4. Installation of stop
ends and cage.5.Concreting.the web und Windwer
General Procedure of
Construction
 1. The excavation is carried out using a heavy self guided mechanical grab
suspended from a large crawler crane.
 2. The diaphragm walls were excavated and constructed in discrete panels
of between 2.8m and 7.0m lengths.
 3. As the excavation proceeds, support fluid was added into the excavation
to maintain the stability of the surrounding ground and to prevent a
collapse. This fluid is called "Bentonite" or "slurry", which is a poser made
of a special type of soluble clay and is mixed at the mixing plant with
potable water.
 4. When the excavation is completed, the reinforcement cage will be
lowered and the concrete procedure will begin.
Equipments
PLACEMENT OF
REINFORCEMENT AND
CONCRETE

Reinforcement Cage Reinforcement is inserted in the form of a steel cage,
but may be required to lap a few sections in order to reach the required
length.•
 Concreting
 Placing of concrete is done using tremie pipes to avoid the segregation of
concrete.
 As Concrete being poured down, bentonite will be displaced due to its
lower density than concrete.
 - Bentonite is then collected and reused.
Concrete procrdure
Types of Diaphragm Walls
 > Structural Diaphragm walls: they are used as retaining walls for the
perimeter walls of deep basements and underground parking facilities and
subways.
 Load bearing walls: they are used in place of drilled piers in foundation of
tall buildings, bridge and piers.
 > Cutoff walls: in hydraulic structures diaphragm walls are used as
impermeable cutoffs to prevent seepage below earth dams and weirs.
ADVANTAGES
 The process of constructing the wall is relatively quiet & has small vibration.
 Can be constructed to a great depth.
 .The wall provides temporary supports during excavation hence expensive steelwork is
eliminated.
 • Good water cutoff. No dewatering is necessary.
 Serves both as external work for the basement and foundation for superstructure.
 • Suitable for deep basement. It can be up to 50m depth.
 Commonly used in congested areas.
 Installed in close proximity to existing structure.
 Suitable for unstable soil profiles below water table.
 • Limited construction time.
 Designable to carry vertical loads.
 Minimize the settlement of adjacent building.
ADVANTAGES
 Provides strong & water tight walls.
 No vibration during installation.
 Noise level limits to engine noise only.
 > Can be used for seepage control in dampRec
DISADVANTAGES
 The cost is higher than conventional methods.
 Special Equipment is necessary.
 Larger space is required at site for the special equipment.
 Not economical for small & shallow basements.