UNIT TWO

DATA COLLECTION
&
PRESENTATION
 Types of Data
Data sets can consist of two types of
data: Qualitative data and
Quantitative data.
DATA

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Consists of
Consists of
numerical
attributes, labels, or
measurements or
nonnumeric entries.
counts.
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Example: The grade point averages of five
students are listed in the table. Which data
are qualitative data and which are
quantitative data?
Student GPA
Sara 3.22
Berhan 3.98
Mahlet 2.75
Tsehay 2.24
Hana 3.84

Qualitative data Quantitative data

 Levels of Measurement
•The level of measurement determines which
statistical calculations are meaningful.
•Measurement is the assignment of values to
objects or events in a systematic fashion. The
four levels of measurement are: nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal
Lowest
Ordinal to
Levels of highest
Measurement
Interval

Ratio
 Nominal Scale
• The values of a nominal attribute are just different
names, i.e., nominal attributes provide only enough
information to distinguish one object from another.
• Qualities with no ranking or ordering; no numerical
or quantitative value. These types of data consists
of names, labels and categories.
• It is a scale for grouping individuals into different
categories.
Example : Eye color: brown, black, etc,
Sex: Male, Female.
• In this scale, one is different from the other.
• Arithmetic operations (+, -, *, ÷) are not applicable,
comparison (<, >, ≠, etc) is impossible.
 Ordinal Scale
• Defined as nominal data that can be ordered or ranked.
• Can be arranged in some order, but the differences
between the data values are meaningless.
• Data consisting of an ordering of ranking of measurements
are said to be on an ordinal scale of measurements.
• It provides enough information to order objects.
• One is different from and greater /better/ less than the
other.
• Arithmetic operations (+, -, *, ÷) are impossible,
comparison (<, >, ≠, etc) is possible.
Example: Letter grading (A, B, C, D, F),
 Rating scales (excellent, very good, good, fair, poor),
 Military status (general, colonel, lieutenant, etc).
 Interval Level
• Data are defined as ordinal data and the differences
between data values are meaningful. However, there is no
true zero, or starting point, and the ratio of data values are
meaningless.
• Note: Celsius & Fahrenheit temperature readings have no
meaningful zero and ratios are meaningless. For example,
a temperature of zero degrees (on Celsius and Fahrenheit
scales) does not mean a complete absence of heat.
• One is different, better/greater and by a certain amount of
difference than another.
• Possible to add and subtract. For example; 800c – 500c =
300c, 700c – 400c = 300c.
• Multiplication and division are not possible. For
example; 600c = 3(200c). But this does not imply that an
object which is 600c is three times as hot as an object
which is 200c.
• Most common examples are: IQ, temperature.
 Ratio Scale
• Similar to interval, except there is a true zero
(absolute absence), or starting point, and the
ratios of data values have meaning.
• Arithmetic operations (+, -, *, ÷) are
applicable. For ratio variables, both
differences and ratios are meaningful.
• One is different/larger /taller/ better/ less by a
certain amount of difference and so much
times than the other.
• This measurement scale provides better
information than interval scale of
measurement.
• Example : weight, age, number of students.
 Summary of Levels of
Measurement
Levels of measurement

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Put data in Yes Yes Yes Yes

categories
Arrange data in No Yes Yes Yes
order
Subtract data values No No Yes Yes
Determine if one No No No Yes
data value is a
multiple of another
 Data Collection
 Is asystematic and meaningful
assembly of information for the
accomplishment of the objective of a
statistical investigation.
 It refers to the methods used in
gathering the required information
from the units under investigation.
 Terminologies
• A simulation is the use of a
mathematical or physical model to
reproduce the conditions of a
situation or process.
•A survey is an investigation of one
or more characteristics of a
population.
A census is a measurement of an
entire population.
A sampling is a measurement of
part of a population.
 Methods of Data Collection
Stratified Samples
 A stratified sample has members
from each segment of a population.
 This ensures that each segment from
the population is represented.

Freshme Sophomor Juniors Seniors

n es
 Cluster Samples
 A cluster sample has all members
from randomly selected segments of
a population.

Freshme Sophomor Juniors Seniors

n es
 Systematic Samples
A systematic sample is a sample in which
each member of the population is assigned a
number. A starting number is randomly
selected and sample members are selected at
regular intervals.

Every fourth member is chosen.

 Convenience Samples
• A convenience sample consists only of
available members of the population.
•Convenience sampling is sometimes
referred to as haphazard or accidental
sampling.
•Sample units are only selected if they can be
accessed easily and conveniently.
•Although useful applications of the
technique are limited, it can deliver accurate
results when the population is
homogeneous.
•May not be representative of the target
population result in the presence of bias.
 Quota sampling
• Quota sampling
• Snowball Sampling
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
DATA
PRIMARY DATA/ SOURCES
 A primary source is a source from where first-hand
information is gathered.
 Are original sources of data.
SECONDARY DATA
 Is the one that makes data available, which were
collected by some other agency.
 A source, which is not primary, is necessarily a
secondary source.
 Obtained from such sources as census and survey
reports, books, official records, reported
experimental results, previous research papers,
bulletins, magazines, newspapers, web sites, and
other publications.
EXAMPLE
 A study conducted to see the age
distribution of HIV/AIDS victim
citizens.
 Information obtained from the victim
citizens are primary sources.
 Use of records of hospitals and other
related agencies to obtain the age of
the victim citizens without the need
of tracing the victims personally is a
secondary source.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Primary & Secondary data
Advantages of primary data over that
of secondary data.
 Gives more reliable, accurate and
adequate information, which is
suitable to the objective and
purpose of an investigation.
 Shows data in greater detail.
 Free from errors that may arise from
copying of figures from publications,
which is the case in secondary data.
DISADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
 It is time consuming and costly.
 Gives misleading information due to lack
of integrity of investigators and non-
cooperation of respondents.
ADVANTAGE OF SECONDARY DATA:
• It is readily available and hence
convenient and much quicker
• It reduces time, cost and effort as
compared to primary data.
• May be available in subjects (cases)
where it is impossible to collect primary
data. Such a case can be regions where
there is war.
The disadvantages of Secondary data :
 Data obtained may not be sufficiently
accurate.
 Data that exactly suit our purpose may
not be found.
 Error may be made while copying
figures.
 The choice between primary data and
secondary data is determined by factors
 Nature and scope of the enquiry,
 Availability of financial resources,
 Availability of time,
 Degree of accuracy desired
 Primary data are used in situations where
secondary data do not provide adequate
basis of analysis. i.e. when the secondary
data do not suit a specific investigation.
 Unless for such cases, most statistical
investigations rest up on secondary data
since it minimizes cost and saves time.
 Methods of collecting primary
data
1. Personal Enquiry Method (Interview
method)
A. Direct Personal Interview: There is a face-
to-face contact with the persons from
whom the information is to be obtained.
B. Indirect Personal Enquiry (Interview):
The investigator contacts third parties
called witnessed who are capable of
supplying the necessary information.
2. Direct Observation
3. Questionnaire method
METHODS /TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

Geographical Classification: - Data are

arranged according to places like
continents, regions, and countries.

Region Dominant Language

Spoken
East Africa Amharic
West Africa French
North Africa Arabic
South Africa English
Chronological Classification:- Data are
arranged according to time like year,
month.

Year (in EC) Population (in million)

1974 30

1986 52

1991 60
•Qualitative Classification: - Data are
arranged according to attributes like
color, religion, marital-status, sex,
educational background, etc.

Employees in Factory X

Educated Uneducated

Femal Femal
Male Male
e e
•Quantitative Classification:- The
statistical data is classified according to
some quantitative variables. The
variable may be either discrete or
continuous.

Mr. x Height (X) in cm

A 160
B 182
C 175
D 178
Discrete Variables – are variables
that are associated with enumeration
or counting.
Example
 Number of students in a class
 Number of children in a family, etc
•Continuous Variables – are
variables associated with
measurement.
Example
 Weights of 10 students.
 The heights of 12 persons.
 Distance covered by a car
 FREQUENCY
Frequency refersDISTRIBUTION
to the number of
observations a certain value
occurred in a data.
A frequency distribution is the
organization of raw data in table
form, using classes and
frequencies.
The tabular representation of
values of a variable together with
the corresponding frequency is
called a Frequency Distribution
(FD).
A.Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
(UFD)
Shows a distribution where the values of a variable
are linked with the respective frequencies.
Example: Consider the number of children in
15 families

No. of No. of Frequency

Children Family
(Values) (Tallies)
0 // 2
1 //// 4
2 //// 4
3 /// 3
4 // 2
Total 15
A.Grouped Frequency Distribution (GFD)

If the mass of the data is very large, it is

necessary to condense the data in to an
appropriate number of classes or groups of
values of a variable and indicate the
number of observed values that fall in to
each class.
A GFD is a frequency distribution where
values of a variable are linked in to groups
& corresponded with the number of
observations
Values (x ) in each group.
i
26 - 51 - 76 -
1 - 25
50 75 100
Frequency
COMMON TERMINOLOGIES
i. Class:- group IN A GFD
of values of a variable
between two specified numbers called
lower class limit (LCL) & upper class limit
(UCL)
Class limits (CL): It separates one class
from another. The limits could actually
appear in the data and have gaps between
the upper limits of one class and the lower
limit of the next class.

In Example*, the GFD contains four classes:

1 – 25, 26 – 50, 51 – 75, and 76 – 100
Class boundaries: Separate one class in a
grouped frequency distribution from the
other. The boundary has one more decimal
place than the raw data.
•There is no gap between the upper
boundaries of one class and the lower
boundaries of the succeeding class.
•Obtained by subtracting half of the unit of
measurement (u) from the lower limits and
by adding ½ (u) on the upper limits of a
class. U can assume values 1, 0.1, 0.01,
0.001……
i.e UCBi = UCLi + ½ (u)
LCBi = LCLi - ½ (u)
ii. Class Frequency (or Simply
Frequency): refers to the number of
observations corresponding to a class.
In Example * The class frequency of
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, & 4th classes are
respectively 3, 10, 18 and 6.
 Note: The unit of measurement (u) is the
gap between any two successive classes. i.e
u = lower limit of a class – upper limit of
the preceding class.
In Example *, consider the 2nd class, 26 – 50, since
u = 26 – 25 = 1,
LCL2 = 26 UCL2 = 50
LCB2 = 26 - ½(1) = 25.5 UCB2 = 50 + ½(1) =50.5

iv. Class Width (size of a class or class

interval): it is the difference between the
upper and lower class limits or the difference
between the upper and lower class
boundaries of any class.
Remarks:
1. If both the LCL & UCL are
included in a class, it is called an
inclusive class. For inclusive
classes,
Class width (cw) = UCBi - LCBi
2. If LCL is included and the UCL is
not included in a class, it is called
an exclusive class. For exclusive
classes;
Class width (cw) = UCLi – LCLi
To be consistent, we use
 v .
Class Mark (cm): it is the mid point
(center) of a class

Note:- the difference between any two

successive class marks is equal to the
width of a class
Range (R) : is the difference between
the largest (L) and the smallest (S)
values in a data
R=L–S
RULES FOR FORMING A GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
To construct a GFD the following points should be
considered
1.The classes should be clearly defined.
That is each observation should fall in to
one & only one class.
2.The number of classes neither should be
too large nor too small. Normally, 5 to 20
classes are recommended.
3.All the classes should be of the same
width. An approximate suitable class
width can be obtained as:
Note that a suitable number of classes
can be obtained by using the formula
n  1 + 3.322 logN.
up/down to the nearest whole number,
where N is the total number of
observations.

 Alternatively n can also be determined

by formula

Where
n=Number of Classes
N=Total number of observations
4.Determine the class limits
 Determine the lower class limit of the
first class (LCL1), then
• LCL2 = LCL1 + cw, LCL3 = LCL2 + cw,… LCLi+1 = LCLi +
cw
 Determine the upper class limit of the
first class (UCL1) i.e.
UCL1 = LCL1 + cw – u,
 where u = the unit of measurement,
then
UCL2 = UCL1 + cw , UCL3 UCL2, … , UCLi+1 = UCLi + cw
 Complete the GFD with the respective
class frequencies.
• Example. The number of
customers for consecutive 30 days in
a supermarket was listed as follows:
20 48 65 25 48 49
35 25 72 42 22 58
53 42 23 57 65 37
18 65 37 16 39 42
49 68 69 63 29 67

A.Construct a GFD with a suitable number

of classes
B.Complete the distribution obtained in (A)
with class boundaries & class marks
Solution: i. Range = Largest value –
smallest value
= 72 – 16 = 56
N = 30 (total number of observations)
 number of classes, n = 1 + 3.322
log30
 n = 1 + 3.322 log30
= 1 + 3.322 (1.4771)
= 5.9
• Hence a suitable number of class n
is chosen to be 6
 Class width = 9.33 = cw
 For the sake of convenience, take
cw to be 10 (note that it is also
possible to choose the cw to be 9).
• Take lower limit of the 1st class (LCL1)
to be 16 & u = 1
• i.e. LCL1 = 16 and UCL1 = LCL1 + cw – u =16+10-1 = 25
LCL2 = LCL1 + cw = 16 + 10 = 26 UCL2 = UCL1 + cw = 25 + 10 =
35
LCL3 = LCL2 + cw = 26 + 10 = 36 UCL3 = UCL2 + cw = 35 + 10 =
45
• Therefore, the GFD would be
A)
Class (xi) Frequency (fi)
16 – 25 7
26 – 35 2
36 – 45 6
46 – 55 5
56 – 65 6
66 – 75 4
B)
Class (xi) Frequency (fi) CBi cmi

16 – 25 7 15.5 – 25.5 20.5

26 – 35 2 25.5 – 35.5 30.5
36 – 45 6 35.5 – 45.5 40.5
46 – 55 5 45.5 – 55.5 50.5
56 – 65 6 55.5 – 65.5 60.5
66 – 75 4 65.5 – 75.5 70.5
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
 Cumulative frequency (CF): It is
(CFD)
the number of observation less than
the upper class boundary or greater
than the lower class boundary of
class.
 ‘Less Than’ Cumulative
Frequency Distribution (<CFD): it
is the number of values less than the
upper class boundary of a given
class.
 ‘More Than’ Cumulative
Frequency Distribution (>CFD): it
is the number of values greater than
Example : Consider the frequency
distribution given below
Class (xi) Frequency (fi) Less than More than
Cumulative Cumulative
Frequency (<cfi) Frequency (>cfi)
3–6 4 4 30
7 – 10 7 11 26
11 – 14 10 21 19
15 – 18 6 27 9
19 – 22 3 30 3

This means that from ‘less than’ cumulative

frequency distribution there are 4
observations less than 6.5, 11 observations
below 10.5, etc and from ‘more than’
cumulative frequency distribution 30
observations are above 2.5, 26 above 6.5 etc.
 RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION (RFD)

• It enables the researcher to know the proportion

or percentage of cases in each class.
• Obtained by dividing the frequency of each class
by the total frequency. It can be converted in to a
percentage frequency by multiplying each
relative frequency by 100%. i.e.

• Where Rfi – is the relative frequency of the ith

class
fi – is the frequency of the ith class
n – is the total number of
observations
Example : The relative and percentage
frequency distribution of is :
xi fi Rfi %freq. (Pfi)
3–6 4 4/30 0.13 4/30  100
7 – 10 7 7/30 0.23 7/30  100
11 – 10 10/30 0.33 10/30 
14 100
15 – 6 6/30 0.20 6/30  100
18
19 – 3 3/30 0.10 3/30  100
Relative cumulative frequency (RCf): The
running22total of the relative frequencies or the
Total frequency
cumulative 30 1 divided
100% by the
100%total frequency
gives the percent of the values which are less than
the upper class boundary or the reverse.
CRfi = Cfi/n= Cfi/∑fi
 PRESENTATION OF DATA
• Presentation is a statistical procedure of
arranging and putting data in a form of tables,
graphs, charts and/or diagrams.
HISTOGRAM
• Consisting of a series of adjacent rectangles
whose bases are equal to the class width of the
corresponding classes and whose heights are
proportional to the corresponding class
frequencies.
• The class boundaries are marked along the x –
axis and the class frequencies along the y – axis.
• It describes the shape (symmetry) of the data and
where do most of the data values lie?
• Example : A histogram to
representing the following data.
Class 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75-84
limits
Frequenc 3 4 10 15 12 4 2
y
Histogram
Frequency

20

15
15
12
10
10

4 4
5 3
2

Class width
 FREQUENCY POLYGON
• It is a line graph of frequency
distribution.
• Clearly illustrates shape of the
data than a histogram does.
• Connects the centers (class
marks) of the tops of the
histogram bars with a series of
straight lines.
 Frequency Polygon
16

14

12

10
F
r
e
q 8
u
e
n
c 6
y

0
9.5 19.5 29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5 69.5 79.5 89.5

Class mark
 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE,
(OGIVE)
• It is useful for determining the number
of values below or above some
particular value.
• Uses class boundaries along the
horizontal axis and frequencies along
the vertical axis.
• There are two type of O-give namely
less than Ogive and more than Ogive.
 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVE,
(OGIVE)

The Less than Ogive

Cumulative Frequency
The More than Ogive

60 60
50 50
40 40
Cumulative

30
Frequency

30
20 20
10 10
0 0
14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 14.5 24.5 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5

Class Boundaries Class Boundaries

 LINE GRAPH
Example . Draw a line graph for the following
time series.
Year 1986 1987 1988 1989 1991
Values 20 10 30 15 1

A line graph showing the above

35
time series
30 30
25 25
Values

20 20
15 15
10 10 10
5
0
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

Year
 VERTICAL LINE GRAPH
• Is a graphical representation of discrete data and
frequencies.
• Vertical solid lines are used to indicate the
frequencies.
• Example . Draw a vertical line graph for the
following data Family A B C D E
Number of children 2 1 5 4 3
BAR CHART (BAR DIAGRAM)
• Histogram, Frequency polygon, ogives are
used for data having an interval or ratio
level of measurement.
• Bar chart is a series of equally spaced bars
of uniform width where the height (length)
of a bar represents the frequency
corresponding with a category.
• Bars may be drawn horizontally or
vertically. Vertical bar graphs are preferred
as they allow comparison with other bars.
• Example: Revenue (in millions of Birr) of
company x from 1980 to 1982 is given
below
 Year Revenue Year Maize Wheat
1980 50 1980 40 80
1981 150 1981 20 60
1982 200 1982 60 100

The number of quintals(in

A simple bar chart showing
revenues of company X thousands) of wheat and
from 1980 to 1982 maize production
100
250 100
90 80
200 80
70 60 60
150 Number of 60
Revenue

quintals 50 40
40 maize
100 30 20 wheat
20
50 10
0
0 1980 1981 1982
1980 1981 1982
Year
year
 SUBDIVIDED BAR CHART Example : percentage bar
chart
Year Wheat Maize
Year % of Wheat Production % of Maize
1980 150 150 Production
1981 300 200 1980 150/300  100 = 50 150/300  100 =
50
1982 350 100
1981 300/500  100 = 60 200/500  100 =
40
The number of 1982 350/450  100 = 78 100/450  100 =
quintals of wheat Percentage of wheat and22
and maize pro- maize production from 1980-

Percentage produced
duced by country X 100% 1982
600 90% 22
80% 40
Number of quintals

500 50
70%
400 200 100 60% wheat
Maize 50%
300 40% maize
78
150 Wheat
200 30% 60
350 50
300 20%
100 10%
150
0 0%
1980 1981 1982 1980 1981 1982

Year
Year
 PIE CHART
• A pie chart is a circle that is divided in to
sections or according to the percentage of
frequencies in each category of the distribution.
• Example: The monthly expenditure of a certain family
is given below.

Items Expenditure % Proportion (Pfi) Degrees (360o Rfi)

Clothing 100 100/1000  100 = 10 100/1000  360o = 36

Food 350 350/1000  100 = 35 350/1000  360o = 126

House Rent 250 250/1000  100 = 25 250/1000  360o = 90

Miscellaneous 300 300/1000  100 = 30 300/1000  360o = 108

Total 1000 100% 360o

Solution: The pie chart for the above
expenditure is as follows

300
350 Food House rent

Clothing Misc.

100

250
 PICTOGRAPH (PICTOGRAM)
• A pictograph is a graph that uses symbols or
pictures to represent data.
• Example : In comparing the population of a
country from 1990 to 1992, we simply draw
pictures of people where each picture may
represent 1000,000 people.
1992 -  Key:  = 1,000,000
1991 - 
1990 - 