JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

Year & Sem - B.Tech III year, sem- VI

Subject – Power System-II
Unit - III
Presented by - Ms. Ritu Soni
Designation - Assistant Professor
Department- Electrical Engineering

Ritu Soni ( Assistant Professor, EE ), JECRC, JAIPUR 1 1

 Load Frequency control
• Introduction
• Reasons for constant frequency
• Methods of Load frequency control
• LFC problem in Single Area Power System
• Load Frequency Control of Two Area
System
• Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
 Introduction
• In an electric power system, Load Frequency Control (LFC) is a
system to maintain reasonably uniform frequency, to divide the load
between the generators, and to control the tie-line interchange
schedules.

• The change in frequency is sensed when the rotor angle ∂ is

changed.

• The error signals are transformed into real power command signal,
which is sent to prime mover to call for an increment in the torque.

• The prime mover then brings change in the generator output by an

amount which will change the values of within the specified
tolerance.
 Reasons for constant
frequency
• The speed of the alternating current motors depends on the frequency of the power
supply. There are situations where speed consistency is expected to be of high
order.

• The accuracy of the electric clocks are dependent on the frequency

of the supply.

• If the normal frequency is 50 Hertz and the system frequency falls below 47.5
Hertz or goes up above 52.5 Hertz then the blades of the turbine are likely to get
damaged so as to prevent the failing of the generator.

• Due to the subnormal frequency operation the blast of the ID and FD fans in the
power stations get reduced and thereby reduce the generation power in the thermal
plants.
Fig. Schematic diagram of load frequency and excitation voltage regulators of a turbo- Generator
 LFC problem in Single Area Power
System
• The load frequency control strategies have been suggested based on the
conventional linear Control theory. These controllers may be unsuitable in some
operating conditions due to the complexity of the power systems such as nonlinear
load characteristics and variable operating points.
• Under normal operating condition controller are set for small changes in load
demand without voltage and frequency exceeding the pre specified limits. If the
operating condition changes by any cause, the controller must be reset either
manually or automatically. The objective of load frequency controller is to exert
the control off frequency and at the same time real power exchange via outgoing
transmission line.
 Turbine Speed Governing System

• The speed governor is the main primary tool for the load frequency
• control (LFC).
• Figure shows a schematic arrangement of a speed governing system used
on steam turbines to control the output of the generator to maintain
constant frequency.
• The speed governing system consists of the following parts .
1) Speed governor
2) Linkage mechanism
3) Hydraulic amplifier
4) Speed changer
Fig. Turbine Speed Governing System
 1.Fly ball speed governor
This is the heart of the system which senses the change in speed (frequency). As the
speed increases the fly balls move outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism
moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed decreases.

2.Hydraulic amplifier
• It comprises a pilot valve and main piston Low power level pilot valve movement is
converted into high power level piston valve movement.
• This is necessary in order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure
steam.
3. Linkage mechanism
• ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at This link
mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion to change in
speed.
• It also provides a feedback from the steam valve movement

4. Speed changer
• It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine.
• Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the
turbine under steady conditions (hence more steady power output).
• The reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer.
 Model of Speed Governing System
• Assume that the system is initially operating under steady conditions—the
linkage mechanism stationary and pilot valve closed, steam valve opened by a
definite magnitude, turbine running at constant speed with turbine power output
balancing the generator load. Let the operating conditions be characterized by

• We shall obtain a linear incremental model around these operating conditions.

• Let the point A on the linkage mechanism be moved downwards by a small
amount ΔyA. It is a command which causes the turbine power output to change
and can therefore be written as
 ….(1)

• where ΔPC is the commanded increase in power.

• The command signal ΔPC (i.e. ΔyE) sets into motion a sequence of events—the pilot
valve moves upwards, high pressure oil flows on to the top of the main piston moving
it downwards; the steam valve opening consequently increases, the turbine generator
speed increases,
i.e. the frequency goes up. Let us model these events mathematically.
• Two factors contribute to the movement of C:

….(3)
• The movement ΔyD depending upon its sign opens one of the ports of the pilot
valve admitting high pressure oil into the cylinder thereby moving the main piston
and opening the steam valve by ΔyE. Certain justifiable simplifying assumptions,
which can be made at this stage, are:
• Inertial reaction forces of main piston and steam valve are negligible compared to
the forces exerted on the piston by high pressure oil.
• Because of (i) above, the rate of oil admitted to the cylinder is proportional to port
opening ΔyD.
• The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder is thus proportional to the time integral
of ΔyD,. The movement ΔyE is obtained by dividing the oil volume by the area of
the cross-section of the piston. Thus

….(4)
• It can be verified from the schematic diagram that a positive movement ΔyD causes negative
(upward) movement ΔyE accounting for the negative sign used in above Eq.
• Taking the Laplace transform of above Eqs. (2),(3), and (4) we get
….(5)

….(6)

….(7)

• Eliminating ΔYC(s) and ΔYD(s), we can write

….(8)
• Where

• Equation (8) is represented in the form of a block diagram in Fig.

 Adjustment of Governor Characteristics
• The control of system frequency and load depends upon the
governor of the prime movers.
• The below figure shows the characteristics of the speed governor system
• For stable operation of generator ,the governors are designed to permitt the
speed to drop as the load is increased .
• Then slop of the curve represent the speed regulation R.
• Governors typically have a speed regulation of 5-6% from zero to full load.
Where

 NL =Steady state speed at No-Load

F =Steady state speed at full load

L0 =Rated speed

If two or more alternators with droping govenor characteristics are connected to a

power system there will be unique frequency at which they will share a load change.
• Assme ,two generator units with droping characteristics as
shown in above figure.
• Let the initial frequency of both the unit is f with power output P1 and P2 when a
load increases to P it causes the units to slow down/.
• The governor increases the output until they reach a new common operating
frequency f.
Load Frequency Control of Two Area System
• An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency control
areas interconnected by means of tie lines. Without loss of generality two area
case connected by tie-line is considered. The control objectives are as follows:

(1)Each control area as for as possibleshould supply its own loaddemand

and power transfer through tie line should be on mutual agreement.
(2) Both control areas should controllable to the frequency control.
• A two area system consists of two single area systems connected
through a power line called tie-line. Each area feeds its user pool, and
the tie line allows electric power to flow between the areas, because
both areas as well as the power flow on the tie-line. For the same
reason, the control system of each area needs information about the
transient situation in both areas to bring the local frequency back to its
steady state value. Information about the local area is found in the tie
line power fluctuations. Therefore, the tie-line power is sensed, and
the resulting tie-line power signal is fed back into both areas. It is
conveniently assumed that each control area can be represented by an
equivalent turbine, generator and governor system.
 Automatic Generation Control
• Sometimes, load on the system is increased suddenly then the
turbine speed drops before the governor can adjust the input of the
steam to the new load.
• As the change in the value of speed diminishes, the error signal
becomes smaller and the position of the governor get closer to the
point required to maintain the constant speed.
• One way to restore the speed or frequency to its nominal value is to
add an integrator on the way.
• As the load of the system changes continuously the generation is
adjusted automatically to restore the frequency to the nominal value.
This scheme is known as automatic generation control.
• In an interconnected system consisting of several pools, the role of
the AGC is to divide the load among the system, stations and
generators so as to achieve maximum economy and reasonably
uniform frequency.
Methods of Voltage Control
 Contents
• Introduction
• Importance of voltage control
• Methods of voltage control
• Shunt compensation
• Series capacitor
• Synchronous condenser
• Tap changing transformer
• Auto transformer tap changing
• Booster transformer
 Introduction
• Transmission of power from generating station to
consumers.
• Constant voltage for satisfactory operation.
• Variation cause unpredictable operation or mal
functioning.
• Cause : change in load at supply side.
• Load , voltage due to voltage drop in
alternator synchronous impedence, transmission
impedence, transformer impedence, feeders and
distributors.
• Prescribe limits : +- 6% of declared voltage
• Voltage regulating device at suitable places.
 Importance of Voltage Control
• Lighting load :
Lamp characterisic is very sensitive to change in voltage.
• below limit  20% in illumination power.
• Above limit  in life of lamp.
50%
• Induction motor :
• in voltage  saturation of pole
• in voltage  reduces starting torque.

• Distribution Transformer :
• Due to heating, rating reduces.
 Location of voltage control Equipments
• Used at more than one point due to
• Desirable drop in transmission and distribution.
• Dissimilar load characteristics.

• Individual means of voltage control for each circuit.

• Devices used at
• Generating station
• Transformer station
• Feeders if drop exceeds the limit
 Methods of Voltage Control
1. Shunt compensation
2. Series capacitor
3. Synchronous condenser
4. Tap changing transformer
5. Auto transformer tap changing
 1. Shunt Compensation
 Shunt Reactor :

 Used to compensate effect line capacitance

 limit voltage rise on open circuit or light load
 increases effective ZC
 They are connected either:
 directly to the lines at the ends
 Tertiary windings  easily switched as VAR vary.
 In long lines  to overcome ferranti effect.
 Connected to bus bar without C.B for switching.
 Shunt Capacitor :
• Supply leading reactive power and boost the voltage
as loading of current reduces.
• Switching substation  inductive load  absorb
inductive current of lower P.F.
• They are connected either:
• H.V. bus
• Tertiary winding of transformers
• Advantage :
• low cost and flexibility of installation.
• Disadvantage :
• Q is proportional to (voltage)^2. So output reduces.
 2. Series Compensation
 Series capacitor :
 Connected in series with line.
 Used to reduce inductive reactance of line so reduction of
 I 2X loss
 characteristic impedance ZC
 Reactive power produced increases with increasing power
transfer.
 Application :
 improve power transfer capacity.
 voltage regulation
Performance of Shunt and Series
Capacitors :
 3. Synchronous Condenser
 A synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a
mechanical load
 Depending on field excitation, it can either absorb or
generate VARs
 With a voltage regulator, it can automatically adjust VAR to maintain
constant voltage
 Started as an induction motor and then synchronized

 Normally connected to tertiary windings of transformers

 Unlike a SVC, a synchronous condenser has an internal voltage

 Speed of response not as fast as that of an SVC

 4. Tap Changing Transformer
•Off load Tap changing transformer :
• Position of tap  number of turns  output voltage.
• Stud 1 : min value
• Stud 5 : max value
• Light load  primary voltage = alternator voltages and movable arm is
placed at stud 1.
• Load drop so movement of stud.
• On load Tap changing transformer :
• widely used so no interruption of supply voltage
• Secondary divided into two parallel path so current divided.
• Tap changing operation is performed one after other.

• Disadvantages :
• Voltage surge due to high voltage drop.
• Num of tapings = 2 * voltage steps.
 5. Auto Transformer
• Mid tapped auto transformer is used.
• Connected with one side of line, divided into two parts.
• Odd switches and even switches
• Normal operation  no drop
• Tap changing  high drop  large circulating current flow 
control by reactor.