PELC

WRITING
1
 Introduction to Writing
1) Capitalization
2) Punctuation
3) Paragraph and its types
4) Letters & Its types
5) Memo Writing
6) Essay Writing
7) Report Writing
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Introduction to PELC Writing
Writing: Is a crucial output skill that is predominantly dependent
upon frequent and consistent practice. Moreover, writing is one of
the two productive skills (The other is speaking) that requires even
more caution to bring about a precise and accurate production
devoid of any flaw or defect though in speaking.

Or: Writing is a way to gain control over your ideas and get them
down on a paper. Moreover, it is a form of written communication.

Or: Writing is a process through which the writer discovers,

organizes, and communicates his ideas to the readers.

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What Makes Writing So Important?
•Writing is the primary basis upon which your work, your
learning, and your intellect will be judged in college, in the
workplace, and in the community.
•Writing expresses who you are as a person.
•Writing is portable and permanent. It makes your thinking
visible.
•Writing helps you move easily among facts, inferences, and
opinions without getting confused and without confusing
your readers.
• Writing equips you with the communication and thinking
skills you need to participate effectively in democracy.
• Writing is an essential job skill.

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 •Writing promotes your ability to pose worthwhile questions.
•Writing fosters your ability to explain a complex position to
readers, and to yourself.
•Writing helps others to give you feedback.
•Writing requires that you anticipate your readers’ needs. Your
ability to do so demonstrates your intellectual flexibility and
maturity.
•Writing out ideas down preserves them so that you can reflect
upon them later.

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Chapter One
Capitalization
6
 6 Steps of Writing Process

Prewriting
Brainstorming
Drafting
Revising
Editing/Proofreading
Final Drafting

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Capitalization
Capitalization (or capitalisation) is writing a word with its first letter
as a majuscule (upper-case letter) and the remaining letters in
minuscules (lower-case letters).
The systematic use of capitalized and uncapitalized words in running
text is called "mixed case".
In the study of capitalization, we shall progress from the more
familiar to the less familiar.
The rules are grouped under general headings to facilitate ready
reference to them.
Rules for Capitalization:
Rule 1. Capitalize a proper noun used anywhere in a sentence.
e.g. Ali studies at KELC.
We met Ahmad yesterday at the library.
We went to Kabul last year.
Note: Pronoun Noun is the name of a specific person, a place, and a
thing. 8
Rule 2: Capitalize the first word of every sentence.
e.g. Art is long; life is short.
We learn English at KELC.

Rule 3: Capitalize the first word in every line of poetry.

e.g. A funny thing about a chair
You hardly ever think it’s there
To know a chair is really it
You sometimes have to go and sit

Rule 4: Capitalize the first word of a quotation from someone. This is

called a direct quotation.
e.g. Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) said, “Live together,
do not turn against each other, make things easy for others and do
not put obstacles in each other’s way”

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Rule 5: Capitalize the first and last words (and every other important
word) in a title.
For the sake of appearance in modern printing style, it is permissible to
capitalize in a title every long word – even every word of four or more
letters, regardless of its function or importance.
e.g. Beauty and the Beast.
Ineffective Reading Habits.
The Farmer and the Cobra.
Honesty and Love Versus Money.
Note: Unimportant words in a title are not capitalized.
These are Three kinds: Conjunctions (and, or, but), articles (the, a, an),
and prepositions (on, of, from etc).
An easy way to remember these exceptions is the memory device,
“Don’t cap the ‘caps’.” The word “caps” is composed of the first letter of
each of the unimportant words (plus the S as plural).
C is for Conjunctions; A for Articles P for Prepositions. (Long
conjunctions or prepositions may be capitalized.)
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Rule 6: Capitalize days of the week, months of the year and other
holidays.
e.g. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday etc.
January, February, March etc.
Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Adha,

Rule 7: Always capitalize the pronoun “I” and explanations “Oh”,

“Bah”, “Ha” etc.
e.g. I am tired today.
Oh, my god I left my car’s keys.

Rule 8: Capitalize those abbreviations and acronyms which are

formed from proper nouns.
e.g. N. Y. , U.S. , U.N., E.L.P. , K.F.C. , P.S.O. , U.N.H.C.R. etc.
KELC, AIDS, PELC, NUML, IELTS, TOFEL etc.

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Rule 9: Capitalize the first word and all nouns in the salutation of a
letter.
e.g. To Whom It May Concern:, Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Gentlemen
etc.
Note: In a three word salutation the word “dear” is not capitalized.
e.g. My dear Madam, My dear Sir etc.
Rule 10: To express formality in English letters, only capitalize the
first word of complementary closing.
e.g. Yours very truly,
Sincerely yours,
Rule 11: Capitalize honorary titles, civil, military and religious, when
they are used with the names of people who own them.
e.g. President Hamid Karzai
Professor Dr. Zain Yousafzai

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Do not capitalize the followings:
Rule 1: The names of college classes.
e.g. freshman
sophomore
junior
senior
Rule 2: The names of sciences and college studies.
e.g. chemistry logic
physics history
biology economic
trigonometry English literature
Rule 3: Do not capitalize the names of the seasons of the year.
e.g. spring, summer, fall, winter

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Rule 4: Do not capitalize the following abbreviations:
e.g. am (Latin) ante meridiem meaning before noon)
pm (Latin) post meridiem meaning after noon)
chap (chapter)
c.o.d. (collect on delivery)
e.g. (Latin) exempli gratia meaning for example)
etc. (Latin) et cetera
i.e. (Latin) (id est) meaning (that is)
fig. (figure)
pt. (pint)
qt. (quart)
vol. (volume)
wk. (week)
yd. (yard of measurement)
yr. (year)
Note: am and pm may be capitalized.
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1.Sentence case will capitalize the first word;
2.lowercase will change all letters in the selection
to lowercase.
3.UPPERCASE changes all letters to uppercase.
4.Capitalize Each Word makes each new word
within the selection start with an uppercase
letter.
5.Title Case capitalizes first letter of each
important word in a title.

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Chapter 2
Punctuation
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 Punctuation
Punctuation is the system of adding appropriate punctuation
marks or signs to your writing segment in order to make the
meaning clear. Moreover, these written signs represent a
speaker’s way of conveying his or her meaning, and they also
guide readers as to the way that written material should be
read so that they can be read fluently in order to understand
the meaning as they go along.
Some facts about Punctuation Marks or Signs:

1: Punctuation marks represent in writing segment the pauses

and change of tone and expression that a speaker makes.
2: The speaker uses these pauses and changes of tone, usually
unconsciously, to indicate the sentence structure to the listener.
3: Punctuation Marks are also the means of showing the
sentence structure to the reader. 17
 Punctuation Marks
These Punctuation Marks are used to indicate stops and pauses in
our written sentences. Moreover, these marks can be most often
seen in our writing segments.

e.g.
1: Full Stop (.) 4: Question Mark (?)
2: Comma (,) 5: Colon (:)
3: Semicolon (;) 6: Exclamation Mark (!)

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1: Full Stop (.): It is also called sometimes Full point or End
Mark or Period especially in British English. Moreover, it
represents falling tone, the biggest or longest pause that comes
on the completion of a statement to mark the end of sentence.
It is stronger than both Comma and Semicolon.

Usages of Full Stop

1: We use a full stop at the end of a Declarative or Assertive,
Imperative and Optative sentences.
e.g. Love is flowerlike.
Bring me a glass of water.
May you live long.

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2: Always use a full stop at the end of an Indirect Statement as it is
originally called Noun Clause.
e.g. I don’t know what she meant.
She wanted to know if I could help her with her math
assignment.
3: Use a full stop to avoid the common error of combining two Main clauses
with a comma. Moreover, it is used when the thought is flowing on into the
second sentence.
e.g. I always get up early. I like to work before breakfast.
I always get up early, I like to work before breakfast. Wrong
4: Use full stops more especially for clarity after those words that have been
shortened or abbreviated.
e.g. A.D. , B.C. , A. M. , P. M. , Mr. Fardin Safi
Note: In modern English especially British English, it is possible to write the
abbreviated words without full stops.
e.g. Dr. A. Q. Khan, AD , BC, A M , P M , Mr. Fardin Safi
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5: A reliable principle is to add full stops to smaller-letter
abbreviations and to those that start with a capital letter if the
last letter is not included in the abbreviation.
e.g. adj. , adv. , prep. , conj. , 12th-cent. , approx. , max. ,
min. , chap. , vol. , Jan. , Feb. , Mon. , Tues.

6: Use full stops to make the readers clear that the abbreviation
is not pronounced as a word.
e.g. K.E.L.C, N.A.T.O, U.S.A, U.N.O, A.E.L.C, E.F.L, E.S.L,
E.U, V.O.A, B.B.C, C.N.N

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Don’t use full stops in the following areas

1: Never use full stops with abbreviations that are written wholly
in capital letters when they are pronounced as if they were
words. More especially they are called Acronyms.
Acronyms: Some abbreviations are in the form of words
composed of the first one or more letters of the words that make
up the full.
e.g. AIDS (Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome),
KELC (Kabul English Language Center)
NATO (National Atlantic Treaty Organization),
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving)
SADD (Students Against Drunk Driving),
CAT (Chartered Accountant Technician)
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2: Never use full stops with Degrees, Qualifications, Titles, and Awards
as it is increasingly famous in British English.
e.g. MBA, BBA, BSc, MA, MSc, M Phil etc

3: We never use full stops with abbreviations of ordinal numbers.

e.g. 1st September, 2nd October, 3rd November, 4th December
Note: But date, in fact, is very often simply written 1 September, 2
October, 3 November and 4 December, and so on, especially in formal
context.

4: We do not use full stops abbreviations of Metric Measurement and

Chemical Symbols.
e.g. 21 cm, 6 km, 10 g, 5 kg, 20 dl, 30 ml

Metric Measurement/Chemical Symbols

Al (aluminum), Ca (calcium), Mg (magnesium), O (oxygen), Ra (radium)

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2: Comma (,):
It is used to show the grammatical structure of a sentence. Moreover,
it is makes the bigger pauses, to show emphasis, and to clarify. It is
weaker than both Semicolon and Full Stop. Moreover, using a comma
is not a matter of guesswork. If you follow some very simple rules
and use commas only when you know the rules, you will be able to
use comma correctly.

Usages of Comma

1: We used comma in Compound Sentences before

Co-ordinating Conjunctions such as And, So, But, yet, Or, Nor, For.
Moreover, this particularly happens in two cases:

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A: If the subject is repeated, or there is a new subject in the second
clause.
Nazia missed the last bus, for Shazia got late to bus stop.
B: If the second clause is a longer sentence containing more than
three words.
e.g. She was already running late, and she didn’t want to
miss the last train.
I went to have lunch by myself, for Sarwar wasn’t in his
office during lunch time.
Note: Sometimes when the thought runs continuously from one
clause to the next or if the second clause is a shorter sentence
containing two to three words, using a comma before a Co-ordinate
Conjunction is not needed, but the comma is customarily used.
e.g. I didn’t study hard so I failed.
She didn’t study nor did she pass.
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Note: Sometimes when the thought runs continuously from one clause to
the next or if the second clause is a shorter sentence containing two to
three words, using a comma before a Co-ordinate Conjunction is not
needed, but the comma is customarily used.
e.g. I didn’t study hard, so I failed.
She didn’t study, nor did she pass.

Note:
1: In longer sentences, comma should be used if not used, it is still right.
e.g. She was already running late, and she didn’t want to miss
the last train. Best way
She was already running late and she didn’t want to miss
the last train. Still Right
2: In short sentence, comma shouldn’t be used if used, it is still right.
e.g. Sarwar wasn’t felling well today so he went home. Best Way
Sarwar wasn’t felling well today, so he went home. Still Right

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Rule 2: Comma is most often used and is very common in Complex
Sentences when the Adverb Clause precedes the main clause as it is
called a periodic way of using the Adverb Clause.
Structure: Adverb Clause + Comma + Main Clause
e.g. When you fall in love, the lose of wisdom occurs first.
If you want to reach the highest, you have to get started
at the lowest.

Note No.1: Sometimes the thought continues from Adverb Clause to

Main Clause and the subject (topic) doesn’t change so that the
speaker makes no pause then a comma is neither necessary nor
wanted.
e.g. When you fall in love the loss of wisdom occurs first.
If you want to reach the highest you have to get started
at the lowest.

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Note No.2: If the Adverb Clause follows the Main Clause as it is called
Loose usage the Adverb Clause, comma isn’t necessary to be used.

Structure: Main Clause + No Comma + Adverb Clause

e.g. The loose of wisdom occurs first when you fall in love.
You have to get started at lowest if you want to reach the
highest.

Note No. 3: Sometimes a comma is needed even if the Adverb Clause

follows the Main Clause because the Adverb Clause may be added as
an explanation or as additional information.
e.g. Our teacher paused and looked around, as though he
didn’t know what to say next.
The students must study thoroughly, because their
future depends on it.

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Rule 3: Comma is most often not important with a Noun Clause, but
when the verb in the Main Clause and the Noun Clause are the same,
a comma is used between both verbs to avoid confusion.
e.g. Whoever fights, fights in vain.
What it is, is none of your business.
Rule 4: Comma is used to set the Non-restrictive Adjective Clause or
Phrase off from the rest of the Main Clause.
Note: In Embedded Way, we use two commas both before and after
the Adjective Clause and Adjective Phrase, while in Unembedded
way, only one comma is used before the Adjective Clause or Phrase.
e.g. KELC, which is the best English Language Center, renders
quality education.
KELC, the best English Language Center, renders quality
education.

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Rule 5: Comma is used before and after or only after an Appositive,
which is made from the reduction of an Adjective Clause. Appositive
is a noun with its modifier that renames and modifies another noun.
e.g. Shafiq, the doctor, is reckoned as one of the best doctors
in Afghanistan.
The doctor, Shafiq is reckoned as one of the best doctors in
Afghanistan.
Rule 6: Two commas are always used with Accompaniment or
Prepositional Phrases that can appear the subject to plural, but these
phrases can’t alter the noun, subject.
With, Along with, Together with, Accompanied by, As well as, In addition to,
Besides
e.g. My uncle, accompanied by his sons, daughters and wife, is
coming to our house.
Shah Rukh Khan, along with Salman Khan and Fardin
Khan, acts in one movie.
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Rule 7: One comma and sometimes two commas are used with Transitions
to set them off from the rest of the sentence.
e.g. Some students don’t have time to study. However, they
still pass with good marks.
Some students don’t have time to study. They, however, still
pass with good marks.
Some students don’t have time to study. They still pass with
good marks, however.
Rule 8: Commas are used to separate three or more items in a series when
used in a parallel structure. A series can be made up of Nouns, Pronouns,
Adjectives, Adverbs, Verbs, Phrases, Gerunds, Infinitive, Dependent Clauses
and Independent Clauses.
e.g. Most Americans have hamburger, French fries, and a milk shake
for lunch.
What that girl does, where she goes, and whom she meets is
none of our business.
Note: Two parts to a parallel structure do not need any comma. Moreover, the
comma before conjunction is optional but is primarily used.
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Rule 9: We use a comma is used after or before Repoting Speech in Direct
or Quoted Speech.
e.g. Sarwar said, “Love for all is love for none.”
“Love for all is love for none,” Sarwar said.
“Love for all is love for none,” said Sarwar.
Note: If the Reporting Speech is used before, comma is used out of
Quotation Marks, and if the Reporting Speech is used after, comma is
used inside Quotation Marks.

Rule 10: We use a comma after and before a noun if it is used in vocative
case.
e.g. Sarwar, concentrate on your studies.
e.g. Concentrate on your studies, Sarwar.
Rule 11: We use a comma to indicate a missing word in a sentence.
e.g. To promise is so easy and to keep, so difficult.
To say is always easy and to do, always difficult.
Note: In above sentences, the Comma stands for Is.
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3: Semicolon (;):
It is used between two Main Clauses that can really stand as
sentences on their own. Use a Semicolon to link them more closely
or to show close relationship between two ideas. Moreover, it is
stronger than a Comma, but weaker than a Full Stop.

Usages of Semicolon

Rule 1: We use a Semicolon between two Main Clauses to show their

close relationship to each other. Moreover, it does the same job as
Co-ordinate Conjunctions.
e.g. I have lost my luggage; I don’t know what to do.
I have lost my luggage, and I don’t know what to do.
She felt really ill yesterday; she feels better today.
She felt really ill yesterday, but she feels better today.

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Rule 2: We use a Semicolon instead of a Comma before a Co-ordinate
Conjunction to show further proximity of two ideas in case the subjects
of two clauses are different.

e.g. She failed to get better grades, yet her father isn’t sad
about it.
She worked hard; so the teacher decided to award her the
first prize.

• She was seriously ill, so the doctor confined her to bed for 10 days.
• She was seriously ill; so the doctor confined her to bed for 10 days.
Rule 3: We use Semicolon with clauses or after the first clause that
contains Transitions.
e.g.
I didn’t study hard; nevertheless, I got the highest marks on the test.
I didn’t study hard; I, nevertheless, got the highest marks on the test.
I didn’t study hard; I got the highest marks on the test, nevertheless.
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4: Question Mark (?): The question mark is primarily used to indicate
that a question is being asked.

Usages of Question Mark

Rule 1: This punctuation mark is used to indicate that a direct

question being asked.
e.g. What time does the show start?
Are you studying at KELC?
Warning: The question mark is not used at the end of an indirect
question or where a Noun Clause is used.
e.g. He asked what time the show starts.

Rule 2: When used in dialogue, the question mark is placed inside

the quotation marks and takes the place of a period or a comma.
e.g. Karen asked, “Will you be able arrange the meeting?"

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Rule 3: If the question mark does not form part of the quotation, it
is placed out of the quotation marks.
e.g. Did Jane say, “The meeting will start earlier because of the game,
or end earlier because of the game”?

Rule 4: We use a Question Mark at the end of a Declarative Question,

which is statement but has a question intonation and indicates
surprise and has a falling intonation.

e.g. Ali won a million dollars?

Rule 5: Sometimes a question is broken into several small parts, so

each of these parts has a Question Mark.

e.g. Are you man? Or devil? Or spirit? Or just the figment of my own
imagination?
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5: Colon (:):

Usages of Colon

Rule 1: We use a colon to introduce a list of items that ends a

sentence.
e.g. You will have to order several accessory components: chargers,
cases, cords, cables, and speakers.
Rule 2: We use a colon to introduce an extract or quotation that
follows an introductory sentence.
e.g. As Author, Erica Jong, stated: “If you don’t risk anything, you risk
even more.”
Rule 3: We use a colon in the salutation of a formal Business Letter.
e.g. Dear Sir: Dear Madam: To Whom It May Concern:

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Rule 4: Between figures denoting hours and minutes.
e.g. 4:30 a.m. 6:20 p.m.

Rule 5: We use a colon to precede an extended explanation.

e.g. There are two conditions that must exist before we can
experience true freedom: first, each person must be
entitled to act independently of the other;
second, each must agree not cross
those parameters that have been set in place as
protection from harm.

Rule 6: To precede a restatement of an idea.

e.g. The play was poorly performed: it lacked both experience
and characterization from the actors.

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6: Exclamation Mark (!): Restraint should be exercised when using the
exclamation punctuation mark in writing, for when it is used liberally it
will lose its impact.

Usages of Exclamation Mark

Rule 1: We use exclamation mark to indicate a strong and emotional
response.
e.g. We are going to hold a party to celebrate this great success!

Rule 2: We use exclamation mark to emphasize a strong command.

e.g. Call an ambulance!
Rule 3: We use exclamation mark to express a special indication of
contempt or scorn.
e.g. There goes the company expert!
Note: Double exclamation marks should be avoided in business
correspondence.

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Chapter 3
Paragraph
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 Paragraph
Paragraph: Is derived from a Latin word “Paragraphos,” which means
a line or stroke upon which ideas fall.
Or: The word Paragraph is made up of two words Para, which means
writing and graph, which means picture, so Paragraph means Writing
of Picture.

Paragraph is a series of sentences that develops an idea. That idea is

usually stated in a general form in one sentence, called the Topic
Sentence. The rest of the sentences in the paragraph provide the
reader with specific explanation or proof (evidence, support) of the
general Topic Sentence. The Supporting Sentences help the reader
understand more clearly what the writer means and show that the
topic sentence is valid.

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Or: Paragraph is a unit of thought that has several or many sentences
in it about one topic is called Paragraph.

Or: A group of related sentences that develops one main idea or

topic is called Paragraph.

Qualities of Paragraph:
A successful paragraph should have the followings:

1: Completeness/ Developed:
A paragraph must include enough information to give the reader a
clear picture or a full discussion of its main idea. A paragraph without
details or examples is vague and unconvincing. A paragraph that
doesn’t have enough information is called incomplete or
undeveloped.

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2: Logical or Sensible Order:
All the supporting sentences should be in clear and logical order.

3: Unified:
A paragraph should be unified and all the sentences should relate to
the topic sentence.

4: Coherence:
Is the way all the sentences should be clearly connected to each
other. Without connecting words, phrases, supporting ideas may be
hard to follow and may even seem unrelated to the topic sentence
and to each other. A paragraph that lacks connecting words and
phrases sounds like a list.

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Paragraph Writing Process: It almost has the same process as writing
process. It mainly contains the following Three processes namely:

1: Pre-writing
2: During Writing
3: Post-writing

A: Choosing a topic A: Topic Sentence A: Reading

B: Brainstorming/ Clustering B: Supporting Sentences B: Revising
C: Outlining C: Using Transition C: Editing
D: Organizing/order lines D: Using a Clincher D: Final Drafting

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Main Parts of Paragraph: Almost all paragraphs in English have three
main parts that are interrelated in beginning, developing and
concluding one idea.
1: Topic Sentence
2: Supporting Sentences
3: Concluding Sentence
Starter Sentence
A number of follow- up sentences
A clincher sentence
1: Topic Sentence: This vital sentence commits the writer to explain
or illustrate the central main idea or simply it introduces the topic to
the readers. It serves as a key to the rest of the paragraph. An
effective Topic Sentence also serves to state an idea or an attitude
about the topic. Moreover, this idea or attitude about the topic is
called the Controlling Idea.
It has Two parts namely:
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1: A Topic: It contains a key word or phrase.

2: A Direction or general word: It contains a conclusion, an opinion,

or a statement about the topic.
e.g. Listening to the news each day keeps people informed about
current events.
Topic Direction

2: Supporting Sentences: These are all the other sentences in the

paragraph that relate to and develop the controlling idea.

3: Concluding Sentence: This is clincher sentence or restatement that

reminds not only writers not to finish the paragraph suddenly but
also the readers of the general topic.

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Kinds of Paragraph: It has Four main kinds namely:

1: Narrative Paragraph
2: Descriptive Paragraph
3: Expository Paragraph
4: Persuasive Paragraph

1: Narrative Paragraph:
In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to narrate or tell a fictional
or non-fictional story the readers.
Steps of Writing:
1: Topic sentences are less important in story paragraph than in
other compositions.
2: Write sentences to get readers interested at the beginning of the
story and to keep up that interest all the way. (Once upon a time,
Long long ago)
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3: Let your readers know the characters, the time, and the place (Who?
When? Where?) , make characters and actions come to alive, and try to
build up suspense.
4: Finish the story quickly and the concluding sentences of a story
should provide a satisfying ending and should lead the readers to a
climax, which is the most interesting part of the story.
5: Narrative paragraph presents the sequence of events in a story in a
Chronological Order. Moreover, don’t include any events that do not
belong only add details to fill in any gaps in your story.
6: The topic sentence most often comes late or at last.

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 Samples of Narrative Paragraph

Peddling On My Own

Learning how to ride a bike for the first time was a nerve
racking independent moment. I was about five years old when
my sister informed me that I was too old to still be riding a bike
with training wheels. That was the time I decided not to depend
on them anymore. Even though I had some doubt, my sister
and I went outside and started to take the little wheels off my
bike. After my bike went through the transformation, I was now
ready for the big moment. With butterflies in my stomach, I
slowly got on the bike, and with my shaky hands, I gripped the
handles tightly.

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Meanwhile my sister was holding on to me to help keep my
balance. I was so afraid the she would let go, yet I was
determined to ride this bike on my own. Next with a little
push from her, I started to peddle. The faster my bike went
the faster my heart raced. Finally I looked back nervously
and noticed that my sister let go of my bike a long time
ago. I was so excited that I accomplished freedom on my
bike that I forgot to peddle. The next step I remember, I
was lying on the ground, yet I did not care because of the
adrenaline rush. I will never forget the exhilarating moment
and growing up stage of riding a bike without training
wheels.

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2: Descriptive Paragraph: In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to
present a word picture of a person, place or thing.
Steps of Writing Descriptive Paragraph:
1: Be exact and specific and try to avoid vagueness.
2: Use language that makes your picture come to life.
3: Make comparisons by means of speech.
4: Appeal to all of the human senses:
(1: Sight 2: Hearing 3: Smell 4: Taste 5: Touch) (As Sadia sits down at
a big family dinner, she enjoys the chattering voices, the shinny
dishes on the table, the spicy smells, and the first crisp, salty bite into
a cracker.)
5: For greater effect in a short description, stress those details that
build up one impression. (For a lake at night, the mood of calmness;
for a playground, the appearance of widespread activity)

53
6: In describing a scene, you should look for a chance to view it from
a particular position that is fixed or moving. (Tell how a city appears
from a hill overlooking it. Describe a lunchroom as it looks to a
person coming through the door, getting in line for food, and then
moving to a table.)

Some of the arrangements used in Descriptive Paragraph are the

followings:
1: From top to bottom
2: From bottom to top
3: From left to right
4: From right to left
5: From far away to close up
6: From close up to far away
7: From most important to least important
8: From least important to most important
54
 Sample of Descriptive Paragraph
Snap Shot
Back in 1999 this fearless athlete posed in this football picture. In the
far distance below the cloudless sky stands an off-white stadium.
Embedded in the center is large, cracked, blue, painted, letters that
spell out BISON. Beneath the old stadium are rows of worn-out
bleachers which are completely empty. Up in front stands the
competitor down on one knee. As you observe more, the sport
player is wearing a blue Bison jersey sporting the number 60. To the
left above the freshly trimmed green grass that engulfs this player’s
figure lays a football. In the center of the picture, you see her pale
white face and dark brown eyes. Around these features you can not
help but notice the bronzed hair; which appears to be pulled back
around this slender face. Her stern look shows how proud she is;
nonetheless, all the confidence she carries on her padded up
shoulders. This unique woman is not only elegant and brave; she is
my sister, Margaret Eva Hoyt.
55
56
3: Expository Paragraph
In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to explain information,
direction, and instruction. Moreover, sometimes it tells what
happens in the steps of process or why things happen the way they
do.

Note: Details in an Expository Paragraph should be informative, clear,

and carefully arranged so as the readers can understand the subject.

Steps of Writing Expository Paragraph:

1: Think whether you have enough information to explain the subject

or you need more information before you write.

2: Choose the information you want to give about your topic.

57
3: Arrange the information in a logical order, but chronological order
is the best order for expository paragraph, for it gives step- by- step
instructions.

4: State your topic clearly in a topic sentence at the beginning of the

paragraph. The best way to introduce the topic in an Expository
Paragraph is to ask two or three questions before stating the topic
sentence.

5: Present the information in the way you have chosen and also use
transitions to connect the sentences in the paragraph.

6: Don’t let the paragraph end suddenly instead remind the readers
of the general topic by using a clincher statement or restatement at
the end.

58
 Samples of Expository Paragraphs
My Most Favorite Dish, You Can Make It Too

Today we are going to be making chicken primavera. Before you

get started you will need the following things: two or more
skinless, boneless chicken breasts; two cans of Cream of
Mushroom soup; two cans of Cream of Chicken soup; milk; butter;
vegetable oil, spaghetti noodles (or any noodle of you choice); and
finally one very large sized frying pan. First you want to start the
water and about 1 tablespoon of vegetable oil boiling for the
noodles (they take the longest), and then while you have that
going, start dicing you chicken breast into about 1 inch cubes.
After you get all of your chicken cut up you want to start heating
up your pan. Always start on high heat and then once the
ingredients are added the heat will get turned down.

59
Once your frying pan is hot put 1 tablespoon of butter into the
frying pan, let that melt a little bit, and then add your chicken. You
want to make sure that the chicken is browned on all sides, and if
you were to cut a cube in half that the middle is white. Any time
while you are cooking you chicken, if the water is boiling, then you
can start boiling you noodles. When your chicken is done all the
way through then we make the sauce. Right there in the same pan
that you cooked you chicken in, add your two cans of Cream of
Mushroom soup and your two cans of Cream of Chicken soup.
After dumping the soup into the pan, you will then need to guess
on the amount of milk that you put into the sauce. The more milk
that is added the thinner the sauce will be, and the less milk that
is added will give you a nicer creamier sauce. It depends on how
thick or thin you like your sauces.

60
Make sure to keep stirring the noodles through out their cooking
process, or they will all be stuck together. While finishing cooking
the noodles turn the heat down on the sauce so that all it is going
to do is warm up. You don’t want the sauce to boil or else it will
take longer to thicken up even if the amount of milk was small. It
only takes about 3-5 minutes for the sauce to warm all the way
through. Once the noodles are done then you can strain the water
off of them. Add about 1 tablespoon of butter to the drained
noodles and stir them really good to get that butter mixed in, this
will keep the noodles from sticking together until they can be
served. Finally, all you need to do now is dish up your plate of
chicken primavera and enjoy. This recipe will feed between 8-10
people in one sitting. If you need to make more than that, just
double the recipe and follow the same instructions. I hope that
this meal was as quick, easy, and delicious for you as it was for me.

61
4: Persuasive Paragraph
In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to convince the readers top
accept his or her opinion or point of view.
Note: The opinion is supported by with factual, logical reasons or
details.
Steps of Writing Persuasive Paragraph:
1: Decide on your opinion whether you have enough information to
explain it or you need more information before you write.
2: State your topic clearly in a topic sentence at the beginning of the
paragraph.
3: Give two or three factual, logical reasons in support of your
opinion.
4: Give your best reason last.
5: Don’t let your paragraph sound like a list; combine the sentences
in the paragraph by transitions.
6: Don’t let the paragraph end suddenly instead remind the readers
of the general topic by using a clincher sentence. 62
 Samples of Persuasive Paragraph
Reasons Why Marijuana Should Be Legal

People of the United States should push for the legalization of

marijuana. The first reason being the amount of money that our
government spends every year on the “war on drugs”. The
government’s money could be spent in so many other ways.
The second reason it should be legalized is to limit the amount
of people that get put in jails for marijuana, when there are far
worse people out there that need to be put in jail. Marijuana
arrests in the United States doubled between 1991 and 1995. In
1995, more than one-half-million people were arrested for
marijuana offenses. Eighty-six percent of them were arrested
for marijuana possession.

63
Tens of thousands of people are now in prison or marijuana
offenses. An even greater number are punished with probation,
fines, and civil sanctions, including having their property seized,
their driver's license revoked, and their employment
terminated. Despite these civil and criminal sanctions,
marijuana continues to be readily available and widely used.
(Fact Sheet) A third reason is that marijuana is not as harmful as
alcohol, which causes 50% of all traffic accidents a year. In 1972,
after reviewing the scientific evidence, the National
Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse concluded that
while marijuana was not entirely safe, its dangers had been
grossly overstated. Since then, researchers have conducted
thousands of studies of humans, animals, and cell cultures.
None reveal any findings dramatically different from those
described by the National Commission in 1972.
64
In 1995, based on thirty years of scientific research editors of the
British medical journal Lancet concluded that "the smoking of
cannabis, even long term, is not harmful to health." (Fact Sheet) And
yet another reason why marijuana should be legal is because is helps
all sorts of people with medical problems. Marijuana has been
shown to be effective in reducing the nausea induced by cancer
chemotherapy, stimulating appetite in AIDS patients, and reducing
intraocular pressure in people with glaucoma. There is also
appreciable evidence that marijuana reduces muscle spasticity in
patients with neurological disorders. A synthetic capsule is available
by prescription, but it is not as effective as smoked marijuana for
many patients. Pure THC may also produce more unpleasant
psychoactive side effects than smoked marijuana. Many people use
marijuana as a medicine today, despite its illegality. In doing so, they
risk arrest and imprisonment. (Fact Sheet) With all of these great
things that can be done with marijuana, why keep it away from those
who could use it?
65
66
Chapter 4
Letters and types

67
 LETTER
A Letter is a written or printed message addressed to a person or
company/organization, usually sent by post or messenger.
It is an addressed document of legal, formal or informal kind for
various purposes.
Or: A Letter is complete document containing a particular message
for the readers.
Things to Consider While Writing Letter
1: Do not offer misleading information.
2: Do not make promises which you do not have authority to keep.
3: Do not make untrue, damaging or allegation because a Letter is a
permanent record and proof of intention.

68
Types of Letter

1: Informal Letters. Tone and style is relaxed. It is written to relatives,

friends, etc

2: Formal Letters. Tone is formal such as Business Letters

3: Semi-Formal Letters. Tone and style is formal and meant for

relatives such as Invitation Letters

Definition:
Informal Letters are also called Social, Friendly or Personal Letters.
Such letters really have the nature of friendly chat. They are written
informally and the language used in such letters differs from person
to person and the layout may vary from writer to writer.

69
Parts of Friendly or Personal Letters

Personal letters normally have Five Parts.

1. The Heading: This includes the address, line by line with the last
line being the date, placed right at the top right corner. Skip a line
after the heading. The heading is indented to the middle of the page.
If using preaddressed stationery, add just the date.

Warning: Never write your name in the Heading of the letter.

Note: Friendly letters do not require an inside address and the

writer’s printed name. Closing is also informal.

70
2. The Greeting:
The greeting always ends with a comma. The greeting may be formal,
beginning with the word "dear" and using the person's given name
or relationship, or it may be informal if appropriate.
Formal: Dear Uncle Jim, Dear Mr. Wilkins,
Informal: Hi Joe, Greetings,
(Occasionally very personal Greetings may end with an exclamation
point for emphasis.)

3. The Body:
Also known as the Main Text. This includes the message you want to
write. Normally in a friendly letter, the beginning of paragraph is
indented. If not indented, be sure to skip a space between
paragraphs. Skip a line after the Greeting and before the closing.

71
4. The Complimentary Close:
This short expression is always a few words on a single line. It ends in
a comma. It should be indented to the same column as the Heading.
Skip one to three spaces (two is usual) for the Signature Line.

5. The Signature Line:

Type or print your name. The handwritten signature goes above this
line and below the close. The signature line and the handwritten
signature are indented to the same column as the Close. The
signature should be written in blue or black ink. If the letter is quite
informal, you may omit the signature line as long as you sign the
letter.

72
Postscript: If your letter contains a Postscript, begin it with P.S. and
end it with your initials. Skip a line after the signature line to begin
the postscript.

Format for a Friendly or Personal Letter

The following pictures show what a one-page friendly or personal
letter should look like.

73
74
75
76
Note: Full Block format is easy to set and by for the most formal
layout or format for Business Letters.
It is less often used for Social or Friendly letters.

Commas in Letter Writing

Use commas after the salutations (also called the Greeting) in a

personal letter and after the complimentary closing in all letters.

Salutations:
Dear Fred,
My dearest Emma,

Closing:
Sincerely,
Truly yours,

77
Capital Letters in Letters
There are two additional rules for capitalizing when writing letters.
1. Capitalize the first word and all nouns in the salutations (or
greetings).
Correct:
Dear Sir:
My dearest Aunt,
Greetings!
2. Capitalize the first word in the complimentary closing.
Correct:
Sincerely,
Truly yours,
With best wishes,

78
Kinds of social letters are as the followings:

1. Letter of Thanks
2. letter of Condolence
3. Letters of Invitation
4. Love Letter
5. Letter of Congratulation
6. Letters of Apology

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80
81
82
83
84
Business Letters
Definition: A Business Letter has really the nature of serious chat
that is written by individuals to organization and from organization to
its customers.
A Business Letter is a formal kind of letter written to talk about
various business situations.

Purposes of Business Letters: A Business Letter is written to talk

about the following purposes.
1: To Apply for Job
2: To Place an order
3: To make a complaint
4: To register for a class
5: To request information or service

85
Four C’s of Business Letters: Talks about those four qualities that
begin with the letter “C”.

1: Complete
2: Clear
3: Concise
4: Courteous

Standard Parts of Business Letter: Standard parts are those parts of

a letter that we must use to develop a complete Business Letter. They
are;
1: Heading/Date
2: Inside Address
3: Greetings/Salutations
4: Body/Massage
5: Complimentary Close
6: Signature and Writer’s Identification
86
1: The Heading (The Return Address) or Letterhead
Companies usually use printed paper where heading or letterhead is
specially designed at the top of the sheet. It bears all the necessary
information about the organization’s identity. Most often business
letter headings are placed at the top left corner but they maybe
place at the top right corner.

Date - Date of writing. The month should be fully spelled out and the
year written with all four digits October 12, 2011 (12 October 2005 -
UK style).
2: The Inside Address

In a business or formal letter you should give the address of the

recipient after your own address. Include the recipient's name,
company, address and postal code. Add job title if appropriate.
Separate the recipient's name and title with a comma. The inside
address can appear through the window in the envelope.
87
3: The Greeting
Also called the salutation. The type of salutation depends on your
relationship with the recipient. It normally begins with the word
"Dear" and always includes the person's last name. Use every
resource possible to address your letter to an actual person. If you do
not know the name or the sex of your receiver’s address write Dear
Madam/Sir (or Dear Sales Manager or Dear Human Resources
Director). As a general rule the greeting in a business letter ends in a
colon (US style). It is also acceptable to use a comma (UK style).
4: The Body Paragraphs
The body is where you explain why you’re writing. It’s the main part
of the business letter. Make sure the receiver knows who you are and
why you are writing but try to avoid starting with "I". Use a new
paragraph when you wish to introduce a new idea or element into
your letter. Depending on the letter style you choose, paragraphs
may be indented. Regardless of format, skip a line between
paragraphs.
88
5: The Complimentary Close

This short, polite closing ends always with a comma. It is either at

the left margin or its left edge is in the center, depending on the
Business Letter Style that you use. It begins at the same column the
heading does.
The traditional rule of etiquette in Britain is that a formal letter
starting "Dear Sir or Madam" must end "Yours faithfully", while a
letter starting "Dear” must end "Yours sincerely". (Note: the second
word of the closing is NOT capitalized)

89
6: Signature and Writer’s Identification

The signature is the last part of the letter. You should sign your first
and last names. The signature line may include a second line for a
title, if appropriate. The signature should start directly above the first
letter of the signature line in the space between the close and the
signature line. Use blue or black ink.

Optional Parts of Business Letters: Optional parts are those parts of

a letter that we use when required. They are;

1: Attention Line 2: Subject Line 3: Enclosure Notation

4: Copy Notation 5: File or Account Number 6: Mailing Notation

7: Postscript 8: Reference Section

90
1: Attention Line
Attention line is used to forward a letter to a particular person or title or
department. When the letter is addressed to a company, attention line is
usually placed between the inside address and salutation. A blank line is left
before and after it.

2: Subject Line
Subject line shows the main idea of your message. It is very helpful for the
reader. He can understand the whole idea of your letter from the subject
line. You can use the word subject before the line or may omit it. It is
usually placed on the second line below the salutation. It can be in the
center or on the left margin. The Subject Line (optional) - Its inclusion can
help the recipient in dealing successfully with the aims of your letter.
Normally the subject sentence is preceded with the word Subject: or Re:
Subject line may be emphasized by underlining, using bold font, or all
capital letters. It is usually placed one line below the greeting but
alternatively can be located directly after the "inside address," before the
"greeting.“
91
3: Enclosure Notation or Attachments
Enclosure notation shows that you have enclosed one or more
documents with your letter. An enclosure can be anything in the
envelope other than the message itself. If you want to enclose more
than one item, you should indicate the number as Enclosure 4 or
Enclosure 5. For attachment you should use the word attached.
When enclosures are very important, you must mention the names
of the documents. Enclosure notation is placed below Reference
Section.

4: Copy Notation
When you want other persons to receive a copy of the letter, the
names of those persons arranged in order of importance or in
alphabetical order should be typed in a copy notation. It is placed
just below the enclosure notation. Type "cc" before the receivers'
name if you are sending them a carbon copy, "pc" for photocopy and
"bpc" for blind photocopy.
92
5: File or Account Number
Sometimes file or account number is typed above the body of the
letter in a prominent place. It is very helpful for the sender's and the
reader's company. Both can easily check their record.

6: Mailing Notation
Mailing notation are the words such as Special Delivery, Certified or
Registered Mail. They are placed a double space below the date line
and a double space before the inside address. They can also be
placed a double space under the reference initials.

7: Postscript
Postscript is an after thought that you want to add in your letter. If
you forget to mention a point in the body, you may write it in the
postscript. It is written at the end of the letter below everything. You
can write 'ps' before the postscript line.

93
8: Reference Section
Initials are to be included if someone other than the writer types the letter.
If someone other than yourself typed the letter you will include your initials
in capital letters followed by the typist's initials in lower case in the
following format; AG/gs or AG:gs.

Letter Layout or Formats

The format (layout) is the visual organization of a business letter. You can
follow many different formats when you create business letters. Be aware
that there are often differences depending upon location. The main
business letter formats are:

1: Full-Block Style
All the elements are aligned to the left margin and there are no indented
lines. This is a standard block-style format that is accepted by most
businesses. Moreover, it is the most formal among all the formats especially
preferred for the Business Letters.
The following pictures show what a one-page business letter should look
like. There are three accepted styles. 94
Full Block Style

95
2: Modified Block Style
The return address, date, closing and signature start just to the right
of the center of the page or may be flush with the right margin. All
body paragraphs begin at the left margin.
Note: The Complimentary Closing and Signature can be placed on
either the left or right side.

Modified Block Style

96
3: Indented or Semi - Block Style
Similar to the modified block business letter style except that the first
line of each paragraph is indented.
Note: The Complimentary Closing and Signature can be placed on
either the left or right side.

Indented or Semi-Block Style

97
 Samples of Business Letter

Arbab Landi, Khotla

Mohsin Khan, Javeed Abad
Peshawar, Pakistan
October 15, 1996

Ajmal Rasooly (Project Director)

Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
Orakzai Plaza, Total Gas Station,
Saheen Town, University Road,
Peshawar, Pakistan

To Whom It May Concern:

Subject: Application for the post of ESL Instructor

I am applying for the position of ESL Instructor, which I have heard through some reliable sources, lying vacant under your prestigious observation at your well-
reputed center. Since the position, for which I am applying, requires some teaching experience, I am sending a set of my credentials to you and to your
representatives of the respective center. This is particularly exciting position as I would be able to use my knowledge of English Language, which would not only
enhance the effectiveness of my English Language instruction but also let me do something for the home-deprived, Afghans.

The paramount experience that has influenced my decision to apply for this position, however, is your providing people with more opportunities and doing a
great service of providing quality education in the field of English Language to not only Pakistanis but also Afghans, war-afflicted, through well-qualified staff,
innovative, and up-to-date methods of teaching.

If I am given a chance, I will do my level best to further enlighten the name and fame of your organization and at the same time, I will feel great pleasure
working in such challenging environment.

Looking forward to hearing a positive reply and being called for an interview with you at your convenience in no time.

Very truly yours,

Ahmad Fawad

Enclosures: Curriculum Vitae

Letters of Recommendation from four former employers
Two certificates of Excellence and a letter of “Grade Promotion”

98
Fortune Goods
317 Orchard Road Singapore
20 December 2011

Attn: Mr David Choi

Sales Manager
Everlong Batteries
171 Choi Hung Road
Hung Hom, Hong Kong

Dear Mr Choi:

Re. Order No. 768197

I am writing to inform you that the goods we ordered from your company have not been supplied correctly.

On 13 December 2011 we placed an order with your firm for 12,000 ultra super long-life batteries. The consignment arrived yesterday but
contained only 1,200 batteries.

This error put our firm in a difficult position, as we had to make some emergency purchases to fulfill our commitments to all our
customers. This caused us considerable inconvenience.

I am writing to ask you to please make up the shortfall immediately and to ensure that such errors do not happen again. Otherwise, we
may have to look elsewhere for our supplies.

I look forward to hearing from you by return.

Yours sincerely,

J. Wong
Purchasing Officer

99
65 Market Street
Val Haven, CT 95135

June 30, 2004

Customer Service
Cool Sports, LLC
8423 Green Terrace Road
Asterville, WA 65435

Dear Sir or Madam:

I have recently ordered a new pair of soccer cleats (item #6542951) from your website on June 21. I received the order
on June 26. Unfortunately, when I opened it, I saw that the cleats were used. The cleats had dirt all over it and there
was a small tear in front of the part where the left toe would go. My order number is AF26168156.

To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my account for the amount charged for my cleats; I have already
went out and bought a new pair of cleats at my local sporting goods store so sending another would result in me
having two pairs of the same cleats.

Thank you for taking the time to read this letter. I have been a satisfied customer of your company for many years and
this is the first time I have encountered a problem. If you need to contact me, you can reach me at (555) 555-5555.

Sincerely,

Ken Thomas

100
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Contact Number
Email Id
Date

To,
Employer's Name
Company's Name
Company's Address

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am interested and would like to apply for the post of an English Teacher, with reference to your advertisement
published in the Times Newspaper dated 11-03-2010.

I have completed my Masters Degree in English language and literature, from the University of Nevada in the year
2009. I have also completed a professional degree of 1 year in teaching. Moreover, I have good communication skills
and excellent knowledge of the English Language. I am cool-minded, and capable of explaining the subject as many
times being asked. I am an expert in my subject, and can assure you that I can be a very good teacher in English
language and literature.

I would appreciate an opportunity, if I get a chance to meet you in person, so that we could discuss about my
candidacy. If you feel so, you can revert back with a call on my given contact number, or send me an email informing
the same. Please find my attached resume with this cover letter.

Yours sincerely,

Name
101
Chapter 5
Memo
102
Memo Writing
Memo or Memorandum is singular form, while memorandums and
Memoranda or Memos is the plural form.
It is derived from a Latin word Memorandus, which means to record.
A Memo is a brief, usually one page, written communication between
workers within the same office or company.
Memos are used within organizations to communicate everything
from routine details to complete proposals and reports. Memos are
often only a few short paragraphs, but they can be much longer,
depending on their purpose.

Purposes of Business Memorandums: A Memo is written to talk

about the following purposes.

103
Memorandum Objectives
An effective Memorandum has the following objectives:
• To convey a formal message in written form within a particular
organization departments or parties.
• To inform receivers or readers about particular information new or
changed policies, procedures and organizational details.
• To communicate basic information such as meeting agenda,
meeting time, meeting date, etc.
• To keep a written record of a particular formal event in
organization frame.
• To present made decisions in written form.
• To transmit written documents.
• To apply formalities within the organization.

104
Parts of Memo: the heading and the body. The heading indicates
who is writing to whom when, and why. The heading should include
the following parts:

105
Parts of Memo:
1. To
Lists the names of everyone who will receive the memo
Includes the first and last name and titles or departments of the
recipients for formal memos, memos to superiors, or if everyone on
the list does not know each other
If all recipients know each other's names and
Can be listed alphabetically or by rank
If it is not possible to fit all the names in the To: area, use the phrase
"See distribution list"
At the end of the memo add the word "Distribution" and then list the
names of the people who will receive a copy of the memo
Arrange the names by rank, department or alphabetically

106
2. From
lists the name of the writer(s) in the same way as the name(s) of the
recipient(s)
there is no complimentary close or signature line, but authors initial
their names on the From: line
3. Date
lists the month, date, and year the memo was written
do not use abbreviations
avoid using numbers for months and days
4. Re: or Subject
indicates the main subject of the letter
should be as specific and concise as possible
4.1 Cc or c
List those readers who should have a copy of the memo for their
information or reference but are ' not expected to carry out the same
action as the recipients listed in the To: line "cc" can also be placed at
the end of the memo below the distribution list (if used)
107
The body of the memo generally consists of four parts:

1. Introduction:
States the general problem or main idea

2. Statement of facts
States the facts or discusses the problem or issue

3. Argument:
Explains importance or relevance of facts.

4. Conclusion:
Summarizes the main idea, suggests or requests action.
Memos do not have a complimentary close or signature line.
Memos end with a call to action.

108
Qualities of Memo

1: Concise: Make your sentences, paragraph, and overall memo as

brief and as focused as possible.

2: Clear: Get your purpose straight before you start, then plan what
you want to say and in what order. Use your memo layout to help
your reader (headings, bulleted lists, white space, as appropriate).

3: Direct: Speak directly to your reader, as you would in person or on

the phone. Do not pad your ideas with unnecessary details. Think of
what questions your reader wants answered, and then answer them.

4: Clean: Reread, revise, copyedit, and proofread.

109
 Memorandum
To: All Instructors and students

From: The Office of KELC

Date: November 4th, 2010

Subject: Eid-Ul-Adha Holidays

Dear Instructors:

This official memorandum serves to inform all the venerated instructors that office of (KELC) will remain closed on Saturday, November
5th, 2011 due to the observances of pilgrimage.
Moreover, the office of Kabul English Language Center (KELC) announces Eid-Ul-Adha Holidays from Monday, November 7th, 2011 to
Saturday, November 12th, 2011.

This Festival of Sacrifice is an important religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide to commemorate the willingness of Hazrat
Ibrahim (A.S) to sacrifice his son Hazrat Ismail (A.S) as an act of obedience to Allah, the almighty.

We, the working, teaching, governing, and the administrative bodies of Kabul English Language Center (KELC), have the pleasure to
particularly congratulate, and wish our warm Eid greetings to our entire staff, students and in general all the Muslim Umma on this
upcoming Eid.

Last but not the least, it really values to be mentioned that all venerated Instructors are requested to inform and encourage their students
to be present on Monday, November 14th, 2011 so as all the classes can be resumed on the same day.

Wishing you all a very blissful EID

Thanking you in anticipation,

______________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
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To: The Instructors of KELC Date: August 20th, 2010
From: The Office of KELC

Subject: KELC Publication (Intermediate and Advanced Learner’s English Grammar)

Dear EFL Instructors:
This Massive serves to inform all the staff of Kabul English Language (KELC) that the office of KELC has always tried to provide its students
with quality education in all concerns. Moreover, KELC Management has always felt profound pride to have qualified and hard working
staff since its inception.
The fact that all the working staff of KELC is committed to render their services and do a great job of helping not only Afghan but also
Pakistani brothers can be best seen by its publication of the Grammar book (Intermediate and Advanced Learner’s English Grammar),
which has really proved to be useful in enhancing the linguistics skills of both teachers and students.
To further ameliorate the understanding level of students, the Management of KELC strongly expects its respectable Instructors to
encourage their students to purchase the mentioned book. Furthermore, it is imperative that every teacher tell the importance of this
very book and make sure that every on of his students purchase the book.

Features of the Book

Full explanation of the daily used grammatical structures
Clear examples and diagrammatical illustration
Extensive exercises
Contents of the Book
Sentences
Parts of Speech
Clauses and their kinds
Active and Passive
Direct and Indirect Speech
Gerund and Infinitive

Thanking you in anticipation,

___________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC) 111
To: All Instructors

From: The Office of KELC Date: June7th, 2010

Subject: General Staff Meeting

Dear Instructors,

After a carefully assessment of the current performance of the instructors, KELC office came to a verdict
that a compulsory staff meeting shall be held for the betterment of KELC , the purpose of which is to discuss some
academic and administrative issues of KELC and to distribute grades accordingly.

The circulated date and time is tomorrow Tuesday 8th June -2010 at 11:00 am

It is vital to mention that the meeting will conducted by the Deputy Director of SDO; therefore, it is benevolently
requested that all teachers must be present at this vary meeting.
Otherwise a severe penalty will be given to those who make any absenteeism.

Your cooperation will be highly valued with high status meditation.

With Regards,

_____________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)

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From: KELC Office

To: All Teachers Date: February 15th,

2011
Subject Line: Eid-e-Milad-Un-Nabi

Dear EFL Instructors:

Allahuma salli ala Muhammadin wa - ala - Ale Muhammad

O Allah! Shower thy blessings on Muhammad (PBUH) and the descendents of Muhammad (PBUH)

This official communiqué is issued to inform all the respected instructors that the Management Kabul English Language Center (KELC) has
decided to remain closed on Wednesday, February 16th, 2011 owing to Eid-e-Milad-Un-Nabi.

It is time to remember the teachings of the Prophet (PBUH), follow the mission the Prophet (PBUH) dedicated all his life to, and adopt his
teachings in our every walk of life so as to be prosperous in this world and hereafter. .

Moreover, Eid-e-Milad is both, a time to rejoice and a time to mourn, since the Prophet (PBUH) was born on the twelfth day of Rabi-ul-
Awwal passed away on the same day. .

Last but not least, it merits mentioning that all the teachers should inform their students to be back for their classes right on Thursday,
February 17th, 2011 in order that their classes can be resumed as usual.

Wishing you all Eid-e-Milad-Un-Nabi and may the blessing of this Holy Day shower upon
all of us.

Looking forward to your arrival back on duty,

_____________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
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From: KELC Office

To: All Teachers Date: December 2nd , 2011

Subject Line: Muharram-Ul-Haram

This official communiqué is issued to inform all the respected instructors that the Management of Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
has decided to remain closed on Monday and Tuesday, coinciding with the 5th and 6th of December 2011 owing to Muharram-Ul-Haram.

The following are some of the desirable acts one should do on the day of Ashurah:
1. To observe fast on this day.
2. To give as much charity as you can afford.
3. To perform Nafl Salat prayers.
4. To recite Surah Ikhlas 1000 times.
5. To visit and be in the company of pious Ulema.
6. To place a hand of affection on an orphan’s head.
7. To give generously to one’s relatives.
8. To put surma in one’s eyes.
9. To take a bath.
10. To cut one’s nails.
11. To visit the sick.
12. To establish friendly ties with one’s enemies.
13. To recite Dua-e-Ashurah
14. To visit the shrines of Awliyas and the graves of Muslims.

Last but not least, it is worth mentioning that all the teachers should inform their students to be back for their classes right on
Wednesday, December 7th, 2011 in order that their classes can be resumed as usual.

Looking forward to your arrival back on duty,

_____________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)

114
Memorandum

To: All EFL Instructors

From: The Office of KELC Date: December 31 st, 2010

Subject: Security Measures

Dear EFL Instructors:

This memorandum is issued to inform all the respected Instructors that as everyone knows that the situation of Pakistan has really gotten
so critical and security is for the most major of concern everywhere.

We, therefore, strongly inform every single member of our organization to make sure that every student is on the look out so as security
measures can be strengthen within the premises of (KELC).

All the teachers are kindly instructed to keep such areas strictly under their consideration:

1: Inform their students not to bring any extra baggage to center

2: Tell their students to inform KELC Office if any suspicious looking person is observed

3: Inform himself the office of more precautionary measures

4: Instruct guards to keep an eye on all those people who come to KELC

Last but not the least, every single member working at KELC is morally bound to make sure that working condition is safe and everyone
feels fully protected.

Looking forward to your cooperation

With Regards,
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
115
Chapter 6
Essay
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 Essay
What is an Essay?

The word “Essay” is derived from the Latin verb “Exigere”, which
means to:
Examine
Test
Drive out

It is an organized piece of writing that focuses on a single topic or

theme. Moreover, it is organized around a general idea or thesis.
Or: Essay is a short piece of writing on a particular subject, especially
one done by students as part of the work for a course.

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Why Write an Essay?
Writing an essay helps you express your ideas more clearly and
effectively
It helps you to convey much information in a small amount of space
They can be entertaining by recounting interesting stories about
ourselves and others.
A required part of almost all college courses.

Parts of an Essay
There are Three Parts of an Essay
1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion

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Introduction
Consists of one paragraph
Address the topic in the first sentence
Present three examples or ideas to support your opinion

Body
• Consists of three paragraphs
1st paragraph details on example one
2ndparagraph details on example two
3rd paragraph details on example three
• Each paragraph should have three to five sentences
• Use transitional words and phrases to strengthen the organization
• Indent to show where a new paragraph begins

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Conclusion
Consists of one paragraph
Restates the introduction

In Review
The Three Parts of an Essay will organize into five paragraphs:
1st Introduction
Address the topic
Present three examples
2nd Details on example one
3rd Details on example two
4th Details on example three
5th Conclusion

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The following compares the elements of Paragraphs and Essays

Paragraph
• Organized around main idea
• Introductory sentence
• Developed by supporting details
• Concluding sentence

Essay
• Organized around a thesis
• Introductory paragraph
• Developed by supporting body paragraphs
• Concluding paragraph

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 Types of Essays
There are the great number of types of essays used in colleges and
schools today. All of them have their specific particular purpose and
reason. The most popular kinds of essays are:

1: Evaluation Essay
In an Evaluation Essay, you make judgments about people, ideas, and
possible actions. You make your evaluation based on certain criteria
that you develop. Organize the essay by discussing the criteria you
used to make your judgment.
2: Explanation Essay
In an Explanation Essay, you explain how or why something happens
or has happened. You need to explain different causes and effects.
You should organize the essay by explaining each individual cause or
effect.

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 3: Choice Essay
In a Choice Essay, you need to choose which object, idea, or action
that you prefer. You organize the essay by describing each option and
then giving your opinion.
4: Sequence Essay
In a Sequence Essay, you are writing to describe a series of events or
a process in some sort of order. Usually, this order is based on time.
You organize the essay by writing about each step.
5: Compare and Contrast Essay
In a Compare and Contrast Essay, you write about the similarities and
differences between two or more people, places, or things. You can
organize the essay by writing about one subject first and then
comparing it with the second subject.

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 6: Description Essay
Description Essay In a description essay, you write about what a
person, place, or thing looks like. You organize the essay by
describing different parts or aspects of the main subject.
7: Classification Essay
In a Classification Essay, you separate things or ideas into specific
categories and discuss each of them. You organize the essay by
defining each classification and by giving examples of each type.
8: Definition Essay
In a Definition Essay, you take a term or an idea and write about what
it is. Often, definitions are combined with classification or other
forms of organization in the essay.
9: Narrative Essay: The narrative essay tells a story. It can also be
called a "short story." Generally the narrative essay is conversational
in style, and tells of a personal experience. It is most commonly
written in the first person (uses I). This essay could tell of a single,
life-shaping event, or simply a mundane daily experience.
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 Essay on Education
Education is a term which is more easily understood than defined. It
has been derived from the Latin word "educatum" which means the
act of teaching or training.
According to some, it has also come from another Latin term
"educare" which means "to bring up", "to raise". Some also believe
that it has been originated from the Latin word "educere" which
means "to lead forth" or "to come out".
Thus education is regarded as "a process of drawing out from
within". That is why, Gandhijee meant" By education I mean an all-
round drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind and
spirit".
Education is thus a process of self-expression. An individual expresses
himself through education. These innate powers and potentialities
are developed and drawn out through education. It is a means of
adjustment of an individual with the society.

125
It is a process by which he is brought into proper relationship with
the ideas and Meals, customs and traditions of the society.
The child is weak, helpless and ignorant at birth. But he gradually
grows and develops. He acquires knowledge and skills. He realizes
thoughts into actions and satisfies his needs. He changes his behavior
according to his environment. Such changes, growth and
development of the individual are his education this is the result of
his learning and maturation.
Learning is living. Learning is the modification of behavior. Thus
education is the process by which the knowledge, character and
behavior of an individual are formed and modified. One's conduct
and behavior are changed and refined according to the desired
standard of the society. This is the result of education.

126
 Essay on Eid-ul-Fitr

Eid-ul-Fitr is the most important of all the Muslim festivals. It is

celebrated at the end of the holy month of Ramzan, the ninth month
of the Islamic calendar, during which all adult Muslims all over the
world observe a month-long fast and they have their meal only at
night. It is celebrated on the first day of the tenth lunar month of the
Islamic calendar.

Fitr is said to be derived from the word Tatar' which means 'breaking'
or 'fitrah' meaning Alms. It is an occasion of feasting and rejoicing.
Family get-togethers and feasts are the major highlights of the
celebrations of Eid-ul-Fitr.

People exchange greetings ‘Eid Mubarak'. Traditionally, 'Eidi' in the

form of presents of money and gifts are given to the youngsters by
the elders and are conveyed blessings.
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Special delicious dishes like sewiyan are prepared in this festival. It is
a time to forget all past differences and grievances.

It is believed that it was during the month of Ramzan that the holy
book of the Muslims, the Quran came into existence and Prophet
Mohammad was chosen by God as his messenger to compile the
sacred book.

The last ten days of Ramzan are of great significance for the Muslims
because during this period the revelation of the book to the Prophet
was completed.

128
 Essay on Friendship
Friendship is a feeling of love and affection of one person for another.
This feeling of love must be reciprocated. Otherwise friendship
cannot be possible. Friendship does not exist where tastes, feelings
and sentiments are not similar.
The famous essayist Bacon has warned against the friendship
between a very rich person and a very poor person. Economic
disparity damages friendship. Thus friendship is a feeling of affection
between two likeminded persons of uniform status.
It is said that a friend in need is a friend in deed. There may be many
friends at the time of prosperity. But most of them desert at the time
of adversity. We can examine the sincerity of a friend during our time
of hardship and trouble. Only a sincere and faithful friend remains
with us at the time of our trouble. All others leave us. It is very
painful when our friends turn traitors.
129
Money is an enemy of friendship. Everybody has an attraction for
money. When lending or borrowing of money is done between two
friends, there is great risk. Friendship may be affected. So it is wise for
true friends to avoid monetary transaction. Vanity is another element
which breaks friendship. Everybody has self-respect. When a person
tries to criticize his friend, their friendship is affected. So friendship
must be treated very delicately.

Very often some hypocrites pretend to be friends. They are more

dangerous than avowed enemies. By telling soft words they bring
enormous ruin to us. A true friend never exploits. He rather surrenders.
But at present, the meaning of friendship has changed.

There are many fair-weathered friends. They terminate their friendly tie
as soon as their interests are fulfilled.

130
It is very difficult to find a true friend today. It is better to establish true
friendship with either a dog or an elephant. Both these beasts will
remain faithful to their human friends. Today, friendship between two
persons is short-lived.

Good friends exercise good influence. They always help their friends, in
distress and inspire them to walk on the right path. But evil friends ruin
us completely.

131
 If I were a king
Ah, if I were a king! I am a poor child, born in a mid­dle-class family. My
life may look monotonous, because every day I am engaged in attending
the same type of work, such as reading, writing, going to school, and
playing with friends and brothers and sisters; yet I fell that my life is
simple, and I cannot say that I am unhappy.
But if I were born a prince in a royal family, my life­style would have been
completely different from what I am today in this village, lying in a mud
house under the thatched roof with my poor parents who live from
hand to mouth.
In a royal family, I would have many servants, always busy to look after
my comforts. They were on their toes, just to listen to my orders and
comply with my wishes.
And when I would grow up, I would ascend the throne and become a
king. As a good king, I would be required to shoulder many
responsibilities.
132
I would try to become an ideal ruler. I would have levied taxes
according to the finan­cial capacity of my subjects, and not beyond
their means.

As a tax-collector, it would be my duty to look after their safety and

protection. After keeping a reasonable portion of the total taxes for
the expenditures of administration, I would have spent the remaining
part for the welfare of my subjects, by way of building new roads,
bridges, schools and colleges, hospitals and similar other charitable
institutions which would be used by my subjects.
As a king, I would have no desire to expand my king­dom, and hence
would not go for a war with any other coun­try. I would try to
maintain good relation with my neighboring countries. And if
necessary, I would sign a treaty of peace for the better existence of
all of us. As an ideal king, I would do anything that is necessary for
the welfare of my kingdom.

133
But at the moment, I feel that it is better not to become a king who
has to shoulder so many responsibilities and per­form so many
important duties in honor of the crown. So I think, it is better to
remain as I am here in a poor family with my loving parents,
brothers, and sisters, and also the affec­tionate teachers of my school,
and lead a simple life among the simple and common folk around
me.

134
Chapter 7
Report
135
 Report
It is a factual piece of writing that is based on the research that
someone has conducted. A Long Report is simply an expression of a
shorter report. Major differences in the long report involve greater
length and depth of discussion of more complex problems.
Formal Reports are prepared in detail and pertain to complex
problems. They are problem solving or question-answering reports.
When an enterprise has to take or make a major decision, and
requires being on safe side, a report is prepared containing the
definition, nature and analysis of the situation and recommendations
to get over the unwanted situation.

136
Long Reports Demand:
Long Report demand more preliminary collecting, sorting,
interpreting, writing, and editing and creation of visuals than short
report.
Formal Report:
A Long Report may also called "Formal" but not formal in the sense
of language usage.
What to do first when asked to complete a report:
a) Recognize clearly what is expected of you: issue, problems,
purpose, and scope.
b) Resize who your audience or readers will be.
c) Get an idea of sources to which you may turn.
d) Understand when the report is to be completed.
e) Be sure of financial and time constraints cost, travel, release from
work.
f) Ask if the authorizer wants progress reports. 137
Parts of the Formal Report:
A Formal Report has many formalities, embellishments, and
requirements, which must be completed. The embellishments,
formalities, and requirements of a Formal Report may be divided in
Three major divisions whose details are given below:
A. Prefatory Parts:
They are important for the development of a long formal report.
a) Cover and External Title
b) Title Fly and Internal Title
c) Title Page
d) Letter of Authorization
e) Letter of Transmittal
f) Table of Contents
g) Synopsis or Abstract
h) Preface (if the letter of transmittal is ignored)
138
B. Body of the Report

a) Introduction
b) Text
c) Terminal section

C. Supplemental Parts

a) Bibliography
b) Appendix
c) Glossary
d) Index

A. Prefatory Parts of the Formal Report:

The details of the Prefatory Parts of the Formal Report are as follows:

139
a) Covers an External Title:
Many reports combine the cover page and title page as the first
page. You can even purchase professionally produced covers that
have space for a title. Oars are some reports submitted to the
president of United States, the cover may be leather with the title
embossed directly in the cover. Some reports have simple hard cover,
with the title typed on the gummed label. Even large companies have
reports printed with special visually appealing covers.
b) Title Fly:
Title Fly is the cover of the report containing (1) the title of the
report, (2) the name of the receiver of the report, and (3) the name
of the writer that is placed after the Cover and External Title. You
should use a sturdy, light cardboard or paperback cover. The cover
should bear the title of the report in the upper center, the name of
the receiver in the middle center, and the name of the writer in
lower center.
140
c) Title Page:
The Title Page is next to Title Fly. It has more information than the
Title Fly. It bears:
1. Title of the report, name of the receiver, his designation, and the
name of his company.
2. The name of the writer, his designation, and the name of his
company.
3. The date of the submission of the report.

d) Letter of Authorization:
It is also known as Letter of Commissioning. In it the individual or the
management authorizes the report writer to prepare the report. It
also serves as an appointment letter issued to the writer. The
Authorization Letter helps the writer get the company data and take
officials and interviews necessary for study. In this sense it is an
introduction letter, the authorization letter appears immediately after
title page.
141
e) Letter of Transmittal:
This letter comes immediately after the Letter of Authorization and is
bound as part of the letter. It is a covering letter because it transmits
the report. The transmittal letter may include the followings:

1. Authorization of the receiver.

2. Acknowledgement to those who helped with the report.
3. Unexpected findings, major conclusions, and special suggestions.
4. Emphasis on follow up research.
5. Personal comments not included in the body of report.
6. Urging the reader to take action.
It is important to know that in the presence of Letter of Transmittal,
Preface is not at all required because the letter also serves as
Preface.

142
f) Table of Contents:
The table bears major and subdivisions of the report and then
respective appearance in the report. The numbering of the contents
is marked by Roman number (I, II, III), Alphabet (A, B, C) and Arabic
numbers (1, 2, 3) etc.

g) Executive Summary, Synopsis or Abstract:

The Executive Summary, Synopsis or Abstract is a highly compressed
paragraph summarizing the purpose of the report and the general
character of its conclusions or recommendations. Its function is to
give the busy reader quickly a good idea of what he may expect to
find in the report even before he/she has read the probably much
longer introduction.

143
h) Preface:
Preface is the foreword talked by the writer. Through it he addresses
the reader of the report. He offers his thanks to the people who
cooperated with him in the making of the report. The function of the
Preface may be performed by the Letter of Transmittal. Therefore,
Preface is not included if the Transmittal Letter is inserted in the
report.

B. Parts of the Body Formal Business Reports:

The body of a formal report has the following parts:
a) Introduction
b) Text
c) Terminal Section

Tell them what you are going to tell them (Introduction). Then tell
them (Text). Then, tell them what you have told them (Summary,
Conclusion).
144
a) Introduction part of the report:
Introduction acquaints the reader with the better understanding of
report.

b) Text:
The text contains the actual details of the report. It is the main and
crucial part of the body. This part explains findings and data. The
content, organization, language, style, and visual aid should be
trimmed to the type of the reader.

c) Terminal Section:
Terminal section of the body of the report may comprise one or all of
the following elements.
1. Summary
2. Conclusions
3. Recommendations
145
1. Summary:
This section summarizes the findings of the investigation.

2. Conclusions:
It interprets facts explained. It does not give the writer’s personal
opinion. The opinion should be unbiased and, should not base on
personal likes and dislikes.

3. Recommendations:
This section suggests a plan of action based on findings and
conclusions. If recommendations run through the report, it will
include only summary of recommendations. Now it is up to
management whether to follow suggested course of action or not.
C. Supplemental parts of the formal report:
They are not important for the development of a report.

146
The following is some information about the Supplemental parts of
The Formal Business Report.
a) Bibliography:
It refers to the sources from where the data have been collected. The
sources may be books, newspapers, magazines, government
publications or its statistical departments, public associations,
chambers of commerce and yearbooks.
b) Appendix: (Plural: Appendices)
In the Appendix, you may include tables, pictorials, graphs, charts or
some additional information. It appears immediately after the last
page of the body.
c) Glossary:
A Glossary is an alphabetical listing of special terms and words with
their meaning and definitions. It is useful for both technical and non-
technical readers. You should mention Glossary in the table of
contents. 147
d) Index:
It includes the list of topics, their divisions and subdivisions with their
location in the report. The order of the items listed in the Index is
alphabetical.

Kinds of Report

The word Report covers a variety of communication forms that fulfill

many purposes. Companies issue annual reports to keep their
shareholders informed on the progress and financial condition of the
company. Nurses conscientiously enter notations of a patient’s
condition on the medical report. We read news reports in the daily
papers and consult the weather report or surf report to plan our
weekend activities. In science classes you are expected to submit
laboratory reports, and in English classes book reports.

148
In business, industry, government and education, reports are
important form of communication. A letter to a client detailing the
repairs needed to a rental property is a letter report, while a memo
from the property manager to head office on the same topic would
also be considered a report. Some reports require a single page to
complete their aim, while others require several volumes.

Some reports follow a clearly prescribed format, while other informal

reports can be designed to suit their individual purpose.
To help learn more about the art of report writing, it is useful to
classify reports into two broad functional categories: Descriptive
Reports And Analytical Reports.

149
Descriptive Reports: are a presentation of factual information or
expert opinion, organized logically, and written in an objective and
unbiased style. Their function is to give others the information they
need to make an informed decision when they do not have the time
or the expertise to collect the information themselves.

Analytical Reports: also present facts and opinions, but the writer
draws on professional expertise to examine and evaluate these data
and make recommendations. Their function is to give professional
advice to others to guide them in solving their business, technical or
personal problems.
As well as these broad functional categories, reports can also be
classified according to functional style.

150
Some Other Kinds of Report

1. Formal Reports: are frequently required in the business world.

They follow a structured format so that readers can expect to find
prescribed information in the appropriate locations in the report. The
purpose of these reports may vary from presentation of sales or
financial data to an investigation of pollution in urban waterways.
They may be written for a specialist readership or they may be
designed for a wider audience.

2. Technical or Scientific Reports: also follow a structured format.

Since the purpose of these reports is often to methodically document
an experiment or investigation so that others can replicate or verify
it, they must be written with care. Tables of results, graphs, and
detailed drawings are often included.

151
3. Documentary Reports or ‘Eyewitness Reports’: describe an event
or situation in detail. They may be required when informing the
police of a road accident, or making an insurance claim. They provide
the basis for evidence in court cases and arbitration. Since this type
of report requires accuracy and clarity, the use of diagrams, graphics
and photographs may also be required.

4. Informal Reports: could include a variety of purposeful

documents which need not follow any prescribed layout, but which
still fulfill the function of supplying accurate information to aid in
making decisions.

152
5. Standardized Reports: are designed for situations which require a
large number of similar reports. School report cards are familiar to
all of us, and progress, sales and maintenance reports can also be
streamlined so that a simple check in the appropriate column can
save hours of writing.

6. Short Reports: often restricted to one typed page are required by

many organizations. Their function is to streamline the information
flow by including only the essential data. Each organization will have
its own preferred format, but it is usually appropriate to use headings
to focus on the key elements which should include the objective,
results, conclusions and recommendations.

153