CE 212-DigitaL Systems

Adapted from Dr. Ashraf Al Suyyagh slides by Eng. Marwa Al-Tahaineh

CHARLES KIME & THOMAS KAMINSKI © 2008 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. 1

 Chapter 4
CE 212-DigitaL Systems

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 Overview
Introduction
Cost of Boolean Functions
Structure of Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps) Simplification Using the Map
Don’t Care Conditions
Additional Gates and Circuits
 Other Gate Types
XOR and XNOR Functions
 Buffers and Three-State Buffers (CH 4)

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 Introduction
The cost of a digital circuit is directly proportional to the complexity of its logic function or expression.
Smallest/optimal expressions are desirable!
 Goal: to Obtain the simplest implementation for a given function.
To achieve the simplest implementation of a given function (i.e. Optimization):
Boolean identities and theories help reduce circuit complexity, they do not always guarantee the simplest or most
efficient solution.
Karnaugh Maps (k-Maps): a graphical technique, takes up to functions of six variables
Computer-based logic tools: Can minimize a large set of Boolean equations efficiently and quickly.

 Optimization requires a cost criterion to measure the simplicity of a circuit.

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4
 Cost Calculations Criteria
Different cost criteria we will use:
 Literal cost (L):
• A literal is a variable or its complement (A, A’, B, B’).
• Literal cost is simply the number of all variable appearances in a Boolean expression.

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 Cost Calculations Criteria (Cont.)
Gate input cost (G) :It is the number of literals plus the number of terms excluding single variable terms.

 Gate input cost with NOTs (GN): It is G plus the number of distinct complemented literals(inverters).

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 Cost Criteria– Selection Criteria
Two circuits for the same function F:

F = ABC + A’B’C’ F = (A+C’)(B’+C)(A’+B)

Cost: L = 6 , G = 8, GN = 11 Cost: L = 6, G = 9, GN = 12
Same function and same literal cost, but first circuit has better gate input count and better gate input count with
NOTs. Select it!

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 Karnaugh Maps (K-map)
•A K-map is a representation of a truth table function using a collection of squares.
• Each square represents a minterm (if it has a 1), or a maxterm (if it has a 0).
• Each square corresponds to the value of each row in the truth table, therefore, for an n-variable function, there are
2^n squares.
• The squares are NOT filled in the same order as in the truth table. This is because the squares are labelled such
that adjacent squares differ in the value of one variable.
• Alternative algebraic expressions for the same function are derived by recognizing patterns of squares.
• Given certain rules and these patterns, we can possibly minimize the function to an optimum or near optimum
SOP/POS standard forms with two-level AND/OR or OR/AND circuit implementations

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 Two-Variable K-Maps
The rows are the values of x
The column are the values of y

Note
The order is determined by the rule that each square differs
from adjacent squares by only one bit flip, like grey code. The
squares have different values for either x or y.

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 Two-Variable K-Maps (Example 1)
In two variable K-Map We can combine any two adjacent squares or the entire four.

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 Two-Variable K-Maps (Example 2)

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 Two-Variable K-Maps (Example 3)
F(x,y)= ∑ (1,2)

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 Three-Variable K-Maps

The order is such

that there is 1- bit
flip in the binary
values of the index
between adjacent
squares

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 Three-Variable K-Maps(Cont.)
Green shaded area is where the value of x = 1

Orange shaded area is where the value of y = 1 Blue shaded area is where the value of z = 1

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 Three-Variable K-Maps
▪ The two main tasks involved in using a map are entering values into map and reading product terms from it
▪ Alternative labelings are practical and simpler in light of the relationship we observed in the preceding
slide:
Note that X is the most significant, and Z the least significant on the K-map labelling

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 Simplifying Boolean Functions using Maps
1. Enter the function on the K-Map
• Function can be given in truth table, shorthand notation, SOP,…etc.
2. Combining squares for simplification:
• Must be rectangles that include power of 2 squares {1, 2, 4, 8, …}
•Goal: Fewest rectangles that cover all 1’s → as large as possible.
3. Determine if any rectangle is not needed (redundant coverings).
4. Read-off the SOP terms from the covered rectangles.

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 Combining Squares
By combining squares, we reduce the number of literals in a product term, reducing the literal cost, thereby reducing
the other two cost criteria.
A. Two variable Map:

every two adjacent terms that form a

2×1 rectangle correspond to a
f(A,B) = A′ + B′ product term with one variable.

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 Combining Squares( Cont.)
2. Group of four cells rectangles:

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 Three-Variable K-Maps(Exampel-1)

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 Combining Squares(Cont.)
B. Three-Variable Maps:
1. Group of two cells rectangles

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 Three-Variable K-Maps(Exampel-2)
Use a K-map to find an optimum SOP equation for

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 Three-Variable K-Maps(Exampel-3)

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 Four-Variable K-Maps

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 Four-Variable K-Maps(Cont.)
Note that W is the most significant, and Z the least
significant on the K-map labelling.

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 Four-Variable K-Maps(Cont.)
Groups of Four cells:

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 Four-Variable K-Maps(Cont.)
Group of eight cells rectangles:

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 Four-Variable K-Maps(Exampel-1)

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 Four-Variable K-Maps(Exampel-2)

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 Simplification as POS
To find the optimum POS solution for the function F , instead of SOP solution?
1. Place the rectangles over the 0’s instead of 1’s. This basically means we are working with F′ instead of F.
2. Write the simplest SOP expression as before.
3. complement the SOP expression(F′ )′ using DeMorgan’s rule to get POS.
EX) Find the optimum POS solution for:

Apply DeMorgan’s Law:

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 Simplification as POS (Example-2)
SOP Solution (in Blue):
1. Combine the 1’s in the K-map of F.

POS Solution (in Red):

1. Find the optimized SOP for F′ by combining rectangles over the 0’s
in the k-map of F.
2. Complement F′ to obtain the optimized POS for F.

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 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra

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 Some Properties of Identities & the
Algebra
The identities above are organized into pairs.
The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by interchanging (+) and (·) and interchanging 0’s and 1’s.
The identities appear in dual pairs. When there is only one identity on a line the identity is self-dual, i. e., the
dual expression = the original expression.
▪ Unless it happens to be self-dual, the dual of an expression does not equal the expression itself.

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 Useful Boolean Theorems

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 Example 1: Boolean Algebraic Proof

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 Example 2: Boolean Algebraic Proofs

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 Example 3: Boolean Algebraic Proofs

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 Example 3: Boolean Algebraic Proofs

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