SNA Introduction

Computer:A computer is an electronic machine that processes and stores

information. It can perform tasks like calculations, displaying videos, or
running programs based on instructions (software). You use it for things
like typing, browsing the internet, playing games, or managing data.
SNA
• System and Network Administration (SNA) is about managing and
taking care of computers and networks. It includes making sure
servers, computers, and devices work properly, setting up networks to
connect them, and fixing problems when they happen. It also involves
keeping systems secure and updated so they run
smoothly.Computational devices are tools or machines that can
process information and perform calculations. Examples include
computers, smartphones, tablets, calculators, and even
smartwatches. They help solve problems, run programs, or carry out
tasks using instructions.
Computer Science & IT
Computer Science:
• It’s about how computers work and how to make them do new things.
• It focuses on programming, algorithms, and designing software.
• Example: Creating a new app or developing a video game.
Information Technology (IT):
• It’s about using computers and technology to store, manage, and share
information.
• It focuses on setting up systems, fixing problems, and helping people use
technology.
• Example: Managing a company’s computer network or setting up email accounts.
IT-based system
An IT-based system is a setup that uses computers, software, and networks to manage and share information. These
systems help people and businesses organize data, communicate, and perform tasks efficiently. Examples include online
banking, hospital record systems, or school management software. They Comprise:Hardware is the physical parts of a
computer or any device you can touch, like the keyboard, screen, mouse, or the internal parts like the processor and
memory.
Purpose: Hardware works together to run programs, process data, and perform tasks like typing, watching videos, or
browsing the internet. It’s the “body” of the computer that makes everything work.Software is a set of instructions or
programs that tell a computer what to do. It's not something you can touch, like hardware. Examples include apps,
games, and operating systems like Windows or Android. Types
System Software:
This is the software that helps your computer run and manage hardware.
It includes the operating system (like Windows, macOS, or Android), which controls everything on the computer, and
other tools like device drivers that make hardware work properly.
Application Software:
This is the software you use to perform specific tasks or activities, like word processing, browsing the internet, or playing
games.
Examples include programs like Microsoft Word, Google Chrome, or Photoshop..
IT-based system
• Data is information, like numbers, words, images, or facts, that a computer can store and use.
• Purpose: Data is used to help computers make decisions, solve problems, or provide useful results. For
example, when you search for something online, the search engine uses data to find the best answers
for you.Processes are actions or tasks that a computer performs to complete a job. These tasks could
involve calculations, running programs, or moving information around.
• Purpose: The purpose of processes is to make the computer do what you need it to do, like opening a
file, running an app, or playing a video. They are the steps the computer takes to get work
done.People in the context of computers and technology refer to the users, experts, and workers who
interact with or manage technology.
• Role of People:
• Users: People who use computers or software for tasks like writing, gaming, or browsing the internet.
• Technicians/IT Professionals: People who maintain and fix computers or networks.
• Programmers: People who write the software that tells computers what to do.
• Managers/Leaders: People who plan and oversee technology projects or systems.
IT-based system
• A network is a system that connects computers and devices so they can share
information and communicate with each other.
• There are two common types of networks:
• LAN (Local Area Network):
• A network that connects devices within a small area, like a home, school, or office.
• It allows devices to share files, printers, and internet connections easily.
• WAN (Wide Area Network):
• A network that connects devices over a large area, such as different cities or
countries.
• The internet is a big example of a WAN, allowing global communication and
information sharing.
General concepts in Networking and
Technology Multitasking.
• Multitasking is when a computer can do more than one thing at the same time. It
helps the computer run multiple programs or tasks smoothly by using its resources
(like the CPU) efficiently. This makes the system work faster and more
effectively.Types of Multitasking:
Preemptive Multitasking:
• The operating system (OS) gives each task a set amount of time to use the computer’s
processor, making sure all tasks get a chance to run.
• Example: Modern systems like Windows, macOS, and Linux.
Cooperative Multitasking:
• Tasks let the OS control when it’s their turn to run, usually when they’re not doing
anything or waiting for something.
• Example: Older systems like Windows 3.x.
Multitasking
Advantages:
• It makes the system more efficient by using the CPU to its full potential.
• Allows you to run multiple programs at the same time.
• Provides a smooth experience, like watching a video while downloading
files.
Challenges:
• Needs good memory management to avoid problems when too many
tasks try to use resources.
• Can cause slowdowns if too many tasks are running at once.
Troubleshooting:
Troubleshooting:
• It’s the process of finding, understanding, and fixing problems in a
computer or network.
• Steps in Troubleshooting:
• Identify the Problem: Figure out what’s wrong.
• Gather Information: Collect details about the issue.
• Analyze the Cause: Try to understand why it’s happening.
• Test Solutions: Try different fixes to see if they work.
• Implement and Monitor: Apply the fix and keep an eye on it to make sure
it works.
Maintenance:
Maintenance:
It’s the regular tasks done to keep a computer or system working well,
like updating software, cleaning, and backing up data.
Types:
Preventive Maintenance: Regular tasks done to stop problems from
happening, like updating software.
Corrective Maintenance: Fixing problems that have already happened,
like replacing a broken hard drive.
Root Cause
• Root Cause:
• It’s the main reason or source of a problem in a system.

• Root Cause Analysis (RCA):

• A method used to find the main issue causing the problem to prevent it
from happening again. Some techniques are:

• Five Whys: Asking "Why?" several times to get to the root cause.
• Fishbone Diagram: A visual tool to help identify possible causes of the
problem.
Internet:
• Internet:
• It’s a worldwide network that connects millions of different types of
networks, such as personal, business, and government ones.
• Uses:
• Communication: Sending emails, messaging, and video calls.
• Information Sharing: Websites, cloud storage, and online libraries.
• Commerce: Shopping online, banking, and making digital payments.
• Key Technologies:
• TCP/IP: A set of rules that controls how data is sent over the internet.
• Web Browsers: Programs used to access websites, like Chrome or Firefox.
De Facto vs. De Jure Standards
De Facto vs. De Jure Standards:
• De Facto Standards: These are standards that become widely used
and accepted by industries or people, even though they’re not
officially approved by a government or organization. They happen
naturally because they work well.
• Example: USB as a standard for connecting devices.
• De Jure Standards: These are standards that are officially recognized
and legally established by a government or formal organization.
• Example: The official standards for electrical outlets set by national
organizatio
TWAIN ( Technology Without An
Interesting Name)
TWAIN:
• It’s a standard that allows computers to get images from devices like scanners
and cameras. It helps different devices and software work together smoothly
when transferring pictures.OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer):
• These are companies that make parts or products that are used in another
company's products. For example, a company that makes computer components
like hard drives or screens, which are then sold by another company in their
computers. Vendors:
• These are companies that sell technology products or services, like hardware
(computers, printers), software (programs, apps), or networking equipment
(routers, switches). They provide the tools and solutions that other businesses
or individuals need.
Character Encoding:
• Character Encoding:
• It’s a way of turning text into numbers so computers can store and work with it.
• Common Types:
• ASCII:
• A system that uses 128 codes to represent English letters, numbers, and symbols.
• It only supports basic English text and symbols.
• UTF-8:
• A more advanced system that can represent over a million characters, including
almost all languages and symbols.
• It also works with ASCII for the first 128 characters, making it compatible with
older systems
Abstraction:
• Abstraction:
• It’s the process of simplifying complex things by focusing on the important parts and hiding
the details.
• Uses in IT:
• Software Development: It helps make code simpler by grouping data or actions together, like
in object-oriented programming, so developers don’t have to deal with every detail.
• Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL): This lets software talk to hardware without needing to
understand exactly how the hardware works.
• Benefits:
• It makes systems easier to design, understand, and manage because developers don’t have to
worry about every small detail.
• It improves modularity, meaning developers can focus on bigger tasks without being distracted
by technical details.
Procurement
Procurement:
• It’s the process of getting the IT equipment or services a company
needs, like computers, software, or other technology.
Importance:
• Procurement ensures that the company gets the right technology that
fits its needs and budget, helping the business run smoothly and
efficiently.
Upgrade:
• Upgrade:
• It’s the process of improving or updating hardware, software, or systems to
make them work better or include new features.

• Examples:

• Installing a newer version of software.

• Adding more memory (RAM) to make the computer faster.
• Replacing storage with a faster one to improve performance.
• Upgrades help keep technology running smoothly and up-to-date.
Obsolete:
• Obsolete:
• It refers to hardware or software that is old and no longer supported by the
makers.

• Implications:

• Obsolete technology may not receive security updates, making it more

prone to attacks.
• It might also have problems working with newer systems or software.
• Using obsolete technology can be risky and cause problems over time.
Compatibility
• Compatibility:
• It’s the ability of hardware or software to work together without problems.

• Considerations:

• Hardware Compatibility: Making sure new hardware works with your current
system.
• Software Compatibility: Ensuring software can run on different operating systems
or work with other programs.
• Compatibility is important to ensure everything in a system functions smoothly
together.
Interoperability
• Interoperability:
• It’s the ability of different systems, devices, or software to work
together smoothly.
• For example, a smartphone app being able to share data with a
computer program or a printer working with various types of
computers. Interoperability ensures that different technologies can
communicate and function together without issues.
Computing Models
Introduction
• Today’s computing offers different ways to access and manage IT
resources. Some of the most common options are Desktop
Computing, Bring Your Own Device (BYOD), and Cloud Computing.
Each of these has its own features, advantages, and drawbacks.
Knowing the differences between them helps in choosing the best
option for personal or business needs.
Desktop Computing
• Desktop Computing
• Definition:
• Desktop computing refers to traditional, stationary computers, which usually include a
desktop, monitor, keyboard, and mouse, often used in fixed places like offices or
workstations.
• Key Characteristics:
• Local Storage: Data and programs are saved directly on the computer's hard drive.
• Limited Mobility: You can only use the system and access data from the place where the
desktop is located.
• High Processing Power: Desktops generally have strong processing abilities and can handle
heavy tasks better than mobile devices.
• Physical Control: Users or admins can physically manage the hardware, which makes
maintenance and fixes easier.
Desktop Computing....
Pros:(Advanteges)
• Performance: Desktops are powerful and great for demanding tasks like graphic design, data
analysis, or software development.
• Security: It’s easier to control who can access the desktop and its data because it stays in one place.
• Cost-Effective for Long-Term Use: Desktops last longer and can be cheaper over time for work that
requires a fixed location.
Cons:(Disadvantages)
• Lack of Portability: Desktops are not portable, so you can’t easily use them while traveling or
working remotely.
• Higher Energy Use: They tend to use more electricity than mobile or cloud-based options.
• Use Cases:
• Desktops are best for jobs that need strong performance and stability, like work for engineers,
designers, data scientists, or employees at fixed desks.
Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
• Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
• Definition:
• BYOD is a policy that allows or requires employees to use their personal devices, like laptops, tablets, and smartphones,
for work tasks.
• Key Characteristics:
• Employee-Owned Devices: Devices are owned by employees, but they may have company software or security settings.
• Enhanced Mobility: Employees can access work data and apps from anywhere, which supports flexibility and remote work.
• Device Diversity: Employees use different types of devices, operating systems, and hardware, which can make managing
them more complex.
• Pros:(Advantages)
• Increased Flexibility: Employees can work from anywhere, which can boost productivity and help with remote work.
• Cost Savings: The organization saves money since employees use their own devices instead of the company buying new
ones.
• Employee Satisfaction: Employees can use devices they are familiar with, making them happier and more productive.
Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
• Cons:(Disadvantages)
• Security Risks: It's harder to enforce security on personal devices, which
could lead to data breaches or unauthorized access.
• Compatibility Issues: Managing many different devices and operating systems
can cause problems with apps and security.
• Data Privacy Concerns: Having both personal and work data on the same
device can create privacy or legal issues.
• Use Cases:
• BYOD is common in organizations that support remote work, flexible
schedules, or where employees need constant access to work data and
applications.
Cloud Computing
• Cloud Computing
• Definition:
• Cloud computing is a way to deliver computing services (like servers, storage,
software, etc.) over the internet, so users can access them remotely instead of using
local hardware.
• Key Characteristics:
• Remote Access: Users can access data and apps from anywhere with an internet
connection.
• Scalability: Cloud services can be easily adjusted to fit user needs, either by adding or
reducing resources.
• Resource Pooling: Multiple users share the same cloud resources, which are managed
by a cloud provider (e.g., AWS, Google Cloud, Microsoft Azure).
Cloud Computing
• Pros:
• Accessibility: Users can work from different devices and locations.
• Reduced IT Costs: No need to buy and maintain expensive hardware since the cloud provider manages it.
• Automatic Updates and Backups: The cloud provider takes care of updates, security patches, and backups,
so systems stay current.
• Cons:
• Dependence on Internet Connection: A reliable internet connection is needed to access cloud services,
which can affect performance.
• Potential Security and Privacy Concerns: Data on external servers could be at risk if not properly secured.
• Limited Control: Users depend on the cloud provider to manage the infrastructure, which may not allow
for as much customization as on-premises solutions.
• Use Cases:
• Cloud computing is great for organizations that need flexibility, scalability, and remote access. It works
well for businesses of all sizes, especially those with remote or distributed teams.
Emerging Technologies
Internet of Things (IoT):
• IoT is a network of physical devices that have sensors, software, and internet connectivity, allowing
them to collect and share data.Examples:
Smart Homes: Devices like smart thermostats, lights, and security cameras.
• Wearable Devices: Smartwatches or fitness trackers.
• Industrial IoT: Machines in factories that collect data to improve efficiency. Applications:
• Home Automation: Controlling your home devices remotely (e.g., adjusting temperature or lights).
• Healthcare Monitoring: Devices that track your health, like heart rate monitors or smart scales.
• Industrial Automation: Using sensors in factories to monitor equipment and improve
operations.Key Challenges:
• Security: Protecting IoT devices from hackers.
• Data Privacy: Ensuring sensitive personal data is kept safe.
• Interoperability: Making sure different devices from various brands can work together smoothly.
Emerging Technologies
Edge Computing:
• This is a system where data is processed closer to where it is generated (near the source)
instead of sending it to a distant data center. This reduces delays (latency) and saves bandwidth,
making devices work faster and more efficiently. Difference from Cloud Computing:
• Edge computing processes data directly on devices or near where the data is generated, while
cloud computing sends data to centralized data centers for processing.
• Benefits:
• Reduced Latency: Edge computing processes data faster because it's done locally, close to the
device.
• Efficient Bandwidth Usage: Since less data needs to be sent to the cloud, it saves bandwidth and
reduces internet traffic.
• Enhanced Privacy: Sensitive data can be processed locally, improving security and privacy by not
having to send it over the internet.
Trade-offs in IT based Systems
• IT systems often have to balance factors like performance, cost, scalability, and reliability. Here are some
common trade-offs:
• Performance vs. Cost
• High-performance parts (like fast processors or SSDs) are usually more expensive.
• Organizations may need to focus on critical systems while reducing costs for less important ones.
• Speed vs. Capacity
• Faster memory (like RAM) is more expensive and has less storage space.
• Larger, slower storage (like HDDs) is cheaper and good for keeping a lot of data.
• Scalability vs. Complexity
• Increasing IT resources (like adding more servers) can make the system more complex.
• Companies need to balance growth and scalability with how easy it is to manage the system.
• Security vs. Usability
• Strong security measures (like two-factor authentication) can make the system harder to use.
• Finding the right balance between keeping things secure and easy for users is important.
Hardware and System Components:
SNA-Basics-Module- 2
System Interaction Diagram:
A system interaction diagram shows how users interact with a computer or device, illustrating
how information flows between the user, hardware, software, and the operating system.
Components:
• User: The person using the device, interacting through input tools like a keyboard or mouse.
• Operating System (OS): Software that manages the computer's hardware and other software,
making sure everything works together.
• Application Software: The programs or apps that the user uses (like word processors, web
browsers, etc.).
• Hardware: The physical parts of the computer or device, such as the CPU, memory, and
storage (like hard drives).
• This diagram helps visualize how different parts of the system work together to perform tasks.
Firmware & ROM-BIOS
Firmware:
Firmware is software that is permanently stored in a device’s memory (like ROM) and
controls the device's hardware at a basic level.
Examples:
• BIOS: A type of firmware that helps start up a computer by checking hardware and
loading the operating system.
• Embedded Device Firmware: Found in devices like routers and printers, controlling
their specific functions.
ROM-BIOS (Basic Input/Output System):
• BIOS is a special type of firmware stored on a chip on the computer’s motherboard. It
runs when the computer starts, making sure the hardware is working and then loads
the operating system.
Boot Process:
Boot Process:
The boot process is the series of steps a computer follows when it is turned on,
leading up to the operating system (OS) starting.
• Steps:
• Power-On Self-Test (POST): The computer checks its hardware to make sure
everything is working properly.
• BIOS/UEFI Execution: The BIOS or UEFI (special software on the motherboard)
runs, checking and setting up the essential components like memory and storage.
• Loading the OS: The BIOS or UEFI loads the operating system into the computer's
memory (RAM), allowing the computer to start up and be ready to use.
Boot Process
POST (Power-On Self-Test):
POST is a test that the computer runs when it is turned on to check if
the hardware is working properly.
• Functions:
• It checks key components like the CPU, memory, storage, and any
connected devices (like keyboard or mouse).
• If any hardware isn't working, POST will show an error code to help
identify the problem.
Operating System (OS) and Its
Categories
Operating System (OS) and Its Categories:
An operating system (OS) is software that helps manage a computer's hardware and allows
other programs to run on it.
• Categories:
• Single-User OS: This type of OS is designed for just one user at a time. It's usually found on
personal computers (e.g., MS-DOS).
• Multi-User OS: This OS allows many users to use the system at the same time, commonly
found in business or server environments (e.g., Linux, UNIX).
• Users (Single-User vs. Multi-User OS):
• Single-User OS: Made for one person to use at a time, typically on personal devices like
laptops or desktops.
• Multi-User OS: Lets several people use the system at the same time, often used in larger
organizations where many people need access to the same resources.
Interface (CLI & GUI):
Interface (CLI & GUI):
An interface is the way users interact with a computer system. There are
two main types of interfaces:
• CLI (Command-Line Interface): This interface uses text commands typed
by the user. It’s more technical and requires the user to know specific
commands (e.g., MS-DOS, UNIX Shell). It’s faster for experienced users
but can be harder for beginners.
• GUI (Graphical User Interface): This interface uses graphics, such as
icons, windows, and buttons, making it more user-friendly and easy to
navigate. You interact by clicking or tapping on visuals (e.g., Windows,
macOS). It’s more intuitive for most users.
Hardware: Key Components
Hardware: Key Components
a) Form Factor: This refers to the physical size, shape, and layout of parts inside
a computer, like the motherboard and the computer case (e.g., ATX, microATX).
b) System Unit: The main box of the computer that holds important parts like
the motherboard, CPU, memory, and storage devices.
c) Motherboard: The main board inside the computer that connects all the
important components, like the CPU and memory, and allows them to
communicate.
d) Ports & Connectors: These are the slots or plugs on the motherboard or
system unit where you connect external devices, like USB drives, monitors
(HDMI), or network cables (Ethernet).
IC (Integrated Circuit)
• IC (Integrated Circuit) & VLSIC (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit)
Difference
• IC (Integrated Circuit): An IC is a small electronic circuit made up of a few
transistors. It’s used in basic electronic devices to perform simple tasks.
• VLSIC (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit): A VLSIC is a more advanced
version of an IC, containing thousands or even millions of transistors.
This allows it to perform more complex functions, like processing data in
computers and smartphones.
• In short, VLSICs are much more powerful and capable than regular ICs,
handling tasks that require a lot of processing power.
Data Buses:
Data Buses:
Data buses are pathways that carry data between different parts of a computer.
• Types:
• Address Bus: This bus carries memory addresses between the CPU and the
memory, telling the system where to find or store data.
• Control Bus: It carries control signals that manage how data flows, ensuring
everything happens in the right order.
• Data Bus: This bus is responsible for transferring the actual data between the
CPU, memory, and other devices (like a hard drive or keyboard).
In simple terms, these buses allow different parts of the computer to communicate
with each other, each handling different types of information
CPU/System Clock:
• CPU/System Clock:
• The system clock controls the timing and coordination of all the parts inside a computer by sending out
regular electrical pulses.
• Clock Speed:
• Clock speed is measured in hertz (Hz), and it shows how many tasks the CPU can do in one second.
Modern CPUs are often measured in gigahertz (GHz), which means billions of tasks per second.
• Multicore CPU:
• A multicore CPU has multiple processing units (cores) on one chip, allowing the computer to handle more
tasks at once and work faster.
• Benefits:
• Increased Processing Power: More cores mean the CPU can handle more tasks simultaneously.
• Better Multitasking: It helps the computer run multiple applications smoothly at the same time.
• More Efficient Power Use: Multicore CPUs use less power while running modern programs compared to
older, single-core CPUs.
Multiprocessing:
Multiprocessing:
Multiprocessing is a system that uses two or more processors (CPUs) to work
on different tasks at the same time.

• Types:

• Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): In this type, all processors have equal

access to the same memory and can work on tasks independently.
• Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP): Here, processors are given specific
tasks, and one main processor controls the others.
ROM-BIOS Categories:
• ROM-BIOS Categories:

• ROM (Read-Only Memory): This is permanent memory that stores important

software, like the BIOS, that helps start up the computer.
• BIOS Types:

• Legacy BIOS: An older version of BIOS with basic features and limited
capabilities.
• UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface): A newer and more advanced
version of BIOS with better features, improved security, and a graphical user
interface (GUI).
Cache and Its Levels:
• Cache and Its Levels:
• Cache is a small, fast memory that stores data the CPU frequently uses,
helping the computer run faster.

• Cache Levels:

• L1 Cache: The smallest and fastest cache, built directly into the CPU.
• L2 Cache: Larger and slower than L1, can be inside the CPU or separate from it.
• L3 Cache: The largest cache, shared between the CPU cores, further improving
speed when accessing data.
Primary & Secondary Storage
• Primary & Secondary Storage:

• Primary Storage (RAM): Temporary memory that the CPU uses to quickly
access and process data while the computer is on.
• Secondary Storage: Long-term storage where data is saved even when the
computer is turned off, like hard drives and SSDs. I/O (Input/Output) Devices:

• Input Devices: Devices that let the user enter data into the computer, like a
keyboard or mouse.
• Output Devices: Devices that display or print information from the computer,
like a monitor or printer.
• Secondary Storage Devices:
• Optical Storage: Uses lasers to read and write data (e.g., CD, DVD, Blu-ray).
• Magnetic Storage: Stores data on spinning magnetic disks (e.g., Hard Disk Drive - HDD).
• Electronic/Semiconductor Storage: Uses flash memory to store data (e.g., Solid State
Drive - SSD, USB drives).
• DRAM & SRAM Differences:

• DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Slower and needs to be refreshed regularly, used as the main
memory in computers.
• SRAM (Static RAM): Faster and doesn't need refreshing, used in cache memory to speed
up data access.
Volatile vs. Non-Volatile Memory
• Volatile vs. Non-Volatile Memory:
• Volatile Memory: Requires power to keep data.
• Example: RAM (Random Access Memory).
• Characteristics:
• Temporary storage for active tasks.
• Data is lost when power is turned off.
• Use: Fast access while running programs.
• Non-Volatile Memory: Retains data even without power.
• Examples: ROM, SSDs, Hard Drives.
• Characteristics:
• Permanent storage for files, OS, and apps.
• Slower than volatile memory.
• Use: Storing data for the long term.
Disk vs. Memory:
• Disk vs. Memory:
• Disk: A storage device for keeping data long-term.
• Examples: SSDs, HDDs.
• Characteristics:
• Slower data access.
• Larger storage capacity.
• Used for storing files, operating systems, and apps.
• Memory: A storage used for quick access to data during tasks.
• Examples: RAM, cache.
• Characteristics:
• Faster access speed.
• Smaller storage capacity.
• Used for running active tasks and programs.
Random Access vs. Sequential
Access:
Random Access vs. Sequential Access:
• Random Access: You can access data directly from any location, anytime.
• Examples: RAM, SSD.
• Sequential Access: Data is accessed in a set order, one after the other.
• Examples: Tape drives.
Virtual Memory: A system that allows your computer to use both RAM and disk storage as
if they were one big memory, so programs can run even when there isn't enough physical
RAM.
• How it works:
• The system splits programs into small parts (called pages) and moves them between
RAM and disk storage as needed.
• This helps with multitasking by making it feel like there is more memory available.
Defragmentation
Defragmentation: The process of rearranging data on a hard drive so that files are stored in one continuous
block, which helps speed up read and write operations.
• Benefits:
• Improves performance and reduces wear on the hard drive.
• Mostly important for HDDs; SSDs don’t need defragmentation.
• Compression: The process of making files or data smaller to save space and speed up transfers. Types:
• Lossless Compression: Reduces file size without losing any data (e.g., ZIP, PNG).
• Lossy Compression: Reduces file size by discarding some data, which can lower quality (e.g., JPEG, MP3).
• Memory Organization (from fastest and smallest to slowest and largest):
• Registers (fastest and smallest)
• Cache
• RAM
• Hard Drive/SSD (slowest and largest)
Disk vs. Memory
Disk vs. Memory: Differences in speed, volatility, and use case
Registers:
Speed: Fastest
Size: Smallest
Volatility: Volatile (loses data when power is off)
Use: Holds data that the CPU needs immediately for processing.
L1, L2, L3 Cache:
Speed: Fast
Size: Limited
Volatility: Volatile
Use: Stores frequently used data to speed up access.
• RAM (DRAM):
• Speed: Slower than cache, but fast
• Size: Larger than cache
• Volatility: Volatile
• Use: Main memory for running programs and active data.
• Secondary Storage (Hard Drives, SSDs):
• Speed: Slowest
• Size: Largest
• Volatility: Non-volatile (data is kept even when power is off)
• Use: Long-term storage for files, applications, and the operating system.
Networking Fundamentals: SNA-
Basics-Module- 4
• Introduction to Networking Types
• Networks are classified by their size, coverage area, and purpose. The
main types of networks are:
• LAN (Local Area Network):
• WAN (Wide Area Network):
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
• These networks allow devices to communicate and share resources.
LAN.
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Definition:
• A LAN connects computers and devices within a small area, such as a home, office, or campus.
• Characteristics:
• Geographical Scope: Covers a small area, like one building or a few buildings.
• Ownership: Managed by one organization or person.
• Data Transfer Speed: Very fast, up to 10 Gbps.
• Technology Used: Wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi).
• Advantages:
• High-speed data transfer for fast communication.
• Cost-effective for small areas.
• Easy to set up and manage.
LAN...
• Disadvantages:
• Limited range to small areas only.
• Security risks if not properly protected.
• Use Cases:
• Used in offices to share resources like printers and files.
• Used at home to connect devices like computers, TVs, and
smartphones.
WAN.
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Definition:
• A WAN is a network that covers a large area, connecting multiple smaller
networks (LANs) across cities, countries, or even continents.
• Characteristics:
• Geographical Scope: Covers large areas, such as nationwide or global regions.
• Ownership: Managed by telecom companies or internet service providers (ISPs).
• Data Transfer Speed: Slower than LANs, typically between 1 Mbps and 100 Gbps,
depending on the infrastructure.
• Technology Used: Leased lines, MPLS, satellite links, and fiber-optic cables.
WAN....
• Advantages:
• Global connectivity for widespread communication.
• Supports large-scale business operations.
• Centralized management of resources and data.
• Disadvantages:
• Expensive setup and maintenance costs.
• Slower speeds compared to LANs.
• Complex to set up and manage.
• Use Cases:
• Connecting branch offices of multinational companies.
• The internet itself is a vast WAN connecting millions of devices worldwide.
MAN.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Definition:
• A MAN is a network that covers a larger area than a Local Area Network (LAN) but
smaller than a Wide Area Network (WAN), typically within a city or metropolitan
region.
• Characteristics:
• Geographical Scope: Spans a city or metropolitan area.
• Ownership: Managed by a single organization or multiple entities, such as local
governments or internet service providers (ISPs).
• Data Transfer Speed: Faster than WANs but slower than LANs.
• Technology Used: Fiber-optic cables, wireless links, and Ethernet.
MAN....
• Advantages:
• Cost-effective for medium-sized areas.
• Efficient for connecting multiple LANs within a city.
• Supports public services like transportation, utilities, and municipal operations.
• Disadvantages:
• Limited to a specific region (usually a city).
• Higher cost compared to LANs but cheaper than WANs.
• Use Cases:
• Connecting government offices within a city.
• Supporting smart city infrastructure like traffic control systems.
• Providing cable TV and broadband services in a metropolitan area.
Key Differences:
• Key Differences:
• Geographical Size:
• LAN: Covers small areas like a home or office.
• MAN: Spans a city or metropolitan area.
• WAN: Connects networks across countries or even globally.
• Cost:
• LAN: Cheapest to set up.
• WAN: Most expensive due to the large-scale infrastructure needed.
• Speed:
• LAN: Fastest because it's within a small area.
• WAN: Slower because it covers long distances and has more complex routing.
• Purpose:
• LAN: Best for sharing resources like printers and files within a local area.
• MAN: Used for city-wide services like public transport and utilities.
• WAN: Essential for connecting remote regions and global networks.
Introduction to Network Types
Introduction to Network Types
• Modern organizations use different types of networks to enable
secure communication, collaboration, and data sharing. It's important
for network administrators to understand Intranet, Extranet, and VPN
to design and maintain secure network systems.
. Intranet
• . Intranet
• Definition: An Intranet is a private network that uses internet technology to help
employees within an organization communicate and share resources.
• Characteristics:
• Only accessible to employees or authorized users.
• Usually accessed through internal devices or a VPN for remote users.
• Secure from outside access with measures like passwords and access control.
• Functions:
• Internal communication (e.g., company news, announcements).
• Collaboration tools (e.g., file sharing, project management).
• Access to internal resources (e.g., HR systems, training).
Intranet......
• Advantages:

• Improves communication and teamwork.

• Increases productivity by centralizing resources.
• Saves costs on physical communication methods.
• Disadvantages:

• Limited access for external partners.

• Requires maintenance and regular updates.
Extranet
• Extranet
• Definition: An Extranet is a private network that lets outside users, like business
partners, suppliers, or clients, securely access certain resources within an organization.
• Characteristics:
• Extends the Intranet to authorized external users.
• Accessed through secure connections like VPNs or dedicated links.
• Often requires authentication (e.g., usernames, passwords, or certificates).
• Functions:
• Allows secure communication with partners and vendors.
• Helps manage the supply chain and collaborate on projects.
• Provides external users with access to specific resources.
Extranet.....
• Advantages:

• Strengthens relationships with external partners.

• Makes processes like procurement and collaboration more efficient.
• Offers better security than public internet communication.
• Disadvantages:

• Can be expensive due to extra infrastructure and security needs.

• Requires careful management of access and permissions for external users.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• Definition: A VPN is a secure connection that lets users access a private
network remotely over a public or private network, making it seem like
they are directly connected to that network.
• Characteristics:
• Encrypts data to keep communication secure on untrusted networks.
• Allows remote users to securely access internal resources (like Intranet
or Extranet).
• Uses protocols like PPTP, L2TP, OpenVPN, or IPsec for secure
connections.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• Functions:
• Provides secure access to corporate networks for remote workers.
• Protects internet browsing by encrypting the traffic.
• Enables access to restricted resources based on location or IP address.
• Advantages:
• Keeps sensitive data safe while it’s being transmitted.
• Supports remote work and international collaboration.
• Reduces the risk of hackers intercepting data on public networks.
• Disadvantages:
• Can slow down the network due to encryption.
• Needs proper setup and maintenance to avoid security weaknesses.
 Other Related Concepts
• Tunneling
• Definition: Tunneling is when one protocol is wrapped inside another
to send data securely over a network.
• Example: VPNs use tunneling protocols like PPTP and L2TP to create
secure connections.
• IPsec (Internet Protocol Security)
• Definition: IPsec is a group of protocols that secure internet
communication by encrypting and verifying IP packets.
• Use Case: It is often used in VPNs to ensure secure communication.
• SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer / Transport Layer Security)
• Definition: SSL/TLS are protocols that encrypt data to keep it secure
when sent over the internet.
• Use Case: They are used in HTTPS to ensure safe communication on
websites.
• Proxy Server
• Definition: A proxy server is a middleman server that handles requests
for users, offering security, privacy, and caching services.
• Use Case: It's often used in businesses to control and monitor internet
access.
• Firewall
• Definition: A firewall is a security system that checks and controls the data that
comes in and goes out of a network, based on set rules.
• Use Case: It helps protect the internal network (Intranet) and external connections
(Extranet) from unauthorized access.
• Practical Applications
• Intranet: An employee accesses HR documents through the company's internal
portal.
• Extranet: A supplier uses the company's extranet to check inventory and place
orders.
• VPN: A remote worker connects securely to the company's network to access shared
files and applications.
Network Infrastructure
• Network Infrastructure refers to all the physical and virtual components that
are needed to build, maintain, and manage a network. This includes things like:
• Hardware: Devices like routers, switches, cables, and servers that allow data to
flow between computers.
• Software: Programs that help manage the network, like operating systems,
firewalls, and security tools.
• Protocols: Rules that govern how data is transferred over the network.
• Connections: The links that connect devices, such as Wi-Fi or wired connections.
• In short, network infrastructure is the foundation that enables communication
and data sharing across devices and systems.
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
• Internet Service Provider (ISP): An ISP is a company that provides internet access to
homes and businesses.
• Examples: Comcast, AT&T, Verizon.
• Services: They offer various types of internet connections like broadband, fiber-optic,
satellite, and even dial-up.
• Telecom Infrastructure: This refers to the network of equipment and technology that
allows telecommunication services like internet, phone, and data connections.
• Components:
• Fiber-Optic Cables: These cables carry data quickly over long distances.
• Cell Towers: These towers provide mobile phone service.
• Switching Centers: These facilities manage and direct data to the right places in the
network.
• Modem (Modulator-Demodulator): A modem is a device that changes
digital data from a computer into signals that can travel over phone lines
or cables, and then converts incoming signals back into digital data.

• Types:
• DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to send and receive data.
• Cable Modem: Uses coaxial cables (like cable TV wires) for faster internet
than DSL.
• Fiber Modem (ONT): Used with fiber-optic internet connections,
providing even faster speeds.
Network Interface Card (NIC):
• Network Interface Card (NIC): A NIC is a piece of hardware that allows a computer to
connect to a network.
• Types:
• Ethernet NIC: Connects to the network using a wired connection (Ethernet cable).
• Wireless NIC: Connects to the network wirelessly using Wi-Fi.
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority): IANA is an organization that helps manage
and coordinate IP addresses and domain names around the world.
• Functions:
• IP Address Allocation: Gives out blocks of IP addresses to regional organizations.
• Domain Name Management: Oversees the system of top-level domains (like .com, .org).
• Protocol Number Management: Manages numbers used by internet protocols and port
numbers.
IP Address
• An IP Address is a unique number given to devices on a network, so they can send and receive data. It's like an
address that helps devices communicate with each other, whether on the internet or a local network.
• Public IP Address
• It's an IP address that can be accessed over the internet.
• Given by Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
• Used for devices or servers to communicate with the internet.
• Example: 203.0.113.1
• Private IP Address
• It's an IP address used within a local network and can't be accessed from the internet.
• Assigned by network routers or administrators.
• Used for devices to talk to each other within the same network.
• Common private address ranges:
• 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
• 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
IPv4 vs IPv6
• IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)
• Address Length: 32 bits (4 bytes).
• Format: Written in four sets of numbers, separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
• Address Space: Can provide about 4.3 billion unique addresses.
• Limitations: The available addresses are running out due to the internet’s rapid growth.
• IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)
• Address Length: 128 bits (16 bytes).
• Format: Written in eight groups of hexadecimal numbers, separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
• Address Space: Almost unlimited, able to support billions of devices.
• Features:
• Built-in security with IPsec.
• Better routing and easier network setup.
Static IP Address
• Static IP Address
• Definition: An IP address that is permanently assigned to a device and
doesn’t change.
• Advantages:
• Ideal for devices like servers or websites that need a consistent address.
• Easier to manage in small networks.
• Disadvantages:
• Needs to be set up manually.
• Can be more expensive for home users.
Dynamic IP Address
• Dynamic IP Address
• Definition: An IP address that is automatically assigned by a server
and can change over time.
• Advantages:
• Easy to set up and manage, especially in large networks.
• More affordable for most users.
• Disadvantages:
• Not ideal for hosting servers or services that need a stable, constant
address.
Practical Use Cases and Trade-offs
• Public vs. Private IP
• Public IP: Used for connecting directly to the internet, hosting websites, or
accessing remote devices.
• Private IP: Used within local networks for communication between devices,
offering more security by keeping devices isolated from the internet.
• IPv4 vs. IPv6
• IPv4: The older version, commonly used in existing networks, suitable for
smaller or older systems.
• IPv6: The newer version, needed for larger networks, the Internet of Things
(IoT), and systems with higher security needs.
• Static IP: Best for businesses that need a fixed address for things like servers or remote
access.
• Dynamic IP: Ideal for home users or networks that don't need a fixed address and can
change the IP automatically.
• Network Address Translation (NAT): A technique that lets many devices in a local
network share one public IP address to access the internet.
• Types:
• Static NAT: A private IP is always linked to one public IP.
• Dynamic NAT: A private IP is matched to an available public IP from a pool.
• Benefits:
• Security: Keeps internal IPs hidden from the public internet.
• Saves IP Addresses: Allows many devices to use a single public IP.
Introduction to Networking Models
• Networking models help explain how data moves across networks. The two
main models are:
• OSI Reference Model: A framework that divides network communication
into seven layers.
• TCP/IP Stack Model: A simpler, four-layer model used for most internet
communications.
• These models make sure different devices and systems can communicate
with each other properly.
• The OSI Model breaks down network communication into seven layers,
each handling a specific task. It helps explain how devices communicate
over a network in a clear and organized way.
7 Layers
Physical: This layer is responsible for sending raw data (like electrical
signals or radio waves) through physical mediums, such as cables or Wi-
Fi.
Data Link: This layer makes sure data is transmitted without errors
between devices (like computers or routers) on the same network,
using unique addresses (MAC addresses).
Network: This layer handles the logical addressing of data and
determines how it gets from one device to another across different
networks (using IP addresses).
7 Layers
• Transport: This layer ensures that data is transferred reliably between devices,
making sure it arrives in the correct order and without errors (using protocols
like TCP or UDP).
• Session: This layer manages and maintains ongoing connections or sessions
between devices, ensuring that data is properly exchanged during a
conversation.
• Presentation: This layer is responsible for converting data into a format that
the application can understand, and it also handles encryption and
compression if needed.
• Application: This layer interacts directly with software applications and
provides services such as browsing the web (HTTP), sending emails (SMTP), or
transferring files (FTP).
Key Features
• Encapsulation: As data travels down the layers, each layer adds extra
information (like a header or trailer) to help it reach its destination properly.
• Decapsulation: When data moves up the layers, each layer removes the
extra information it added during encapsulation so that the data can be
understood at the top layer.
• Interoperability: This ensures that different systems and devices from
different manufacturers can work together and communicate smoothly by
following the same standards.
The TCP/IP Model is a simpler version of the OSI model, used in real-world
networks. It has four layers and focuses on the protocols used for
communication over the internet.
Layers of the TCP/IP Model
• Application Layer: Handles services for apps like web browsing
(HTTP), file transfer (FTP), and email (SMTP).
• Transport Layer: Ensures data is transferred reliably and without
errors (using protocols like TCP and UDP).
• Internet Layer: Deals with addressing and routing data across the
network (using IP and ICMP).
• Network Access Layer: Manages the physical connection and data
link, handling things like MAC addresses and hardware.
Key Features
• The TCP/IP model was created for real-world use with the internet. It
includes important protocols like HTTP, FTP, IP, and TCP/UDP, which
help manage how data is sent and received.
Comparison: OSI vs. TCP/IP
Model
• Layers: OSI has 7 layers, while TCP/IP has 4 layers.
• Development: OSI was created as a theoretical model by ISO, while
TCP/IP was developed for practical use by DARPA.
• Usage: OSI is mainly for education and understanding, while TCP/IP is
the model used in actual networking.
• Flexibility: OSI is more rigid, with strict layers, while TCP/IP is more
flexible and focused on real-world applications.
• Examples of Protocols: OSI uses protocols like FTP, SMTP, and HTTP,
while TCP/IP uses protocols like IP, TCP, and UDP.
Detailed Functions by Layer
OSI Model Layer Functions
• Physical Layer: This layer deals with the physical transmission of data,
like cables and wireless connections (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi).

• Data Link Layer: It ensures data is transferred between devices on the

same network, using MAC addresses to identify hardware.

• Network Layer: It handles IP addresses and directs data packets to

the right destination (e.g., IPv4, IPv6).
• Transport Layer: This layer ensures that data is delivered correctly, checking for errors
and managing the flow (e.g., TCP for reliable, UDP for faster but less reliable delivery).

• Session Layer: It manages communication sessions, starting and ending them, and
helps recover from interruptions.

• Presentation Layer: This layer formats and translates data, like encrypting or
compressing it, so the application can use it.

• Application Layer: The top layer, where user applications interact with the network
(e.g., browsers, email), and includes protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP.
TCP/IP Model Layer Functions
• Application Layer: This layer combines OSI's Application, Presentation, and Session
layers. It handles services like web browsing (HTTP) and file transfer (FTP).

• Transport Layer: Manages communication between devices, ensuring data is

delivered correctly. It uses TCP for reliable communication and UDP for faster but less
reliable communication.

• Internet Layer: Responsible for addressing and routing data packets across networks
using protocols like IPv4, IPv6, and ICMP.

• Network Access Layer: Combines OSI's Data Link and Physical layers. It manages the
hardware and communication methods, such as cables and network devices.
Practical Use Cases
• OSI Model Use Cases:

• Helps in learning and understanding how networks communicate.

• Used for troubleshooting network problems by focusing on one layer at a
time.
• TCP/IP Model Use Cases:

• Used in real-world internet networking.

• Forms the foundation for developing networking protocols and
applications.
Key Takeaways
• The OSI Model is a theoretical framework with 7 layers that help
explain how communication works.
• The TCP/IP Model is a practical model with 4 layers used for real-
world internet communications.
• Both models work together: OSI helps with understanding the theory,
while TCP/IP is used in actual networking.
Categories of Networking Protocols
• Networking protocols can be grouped into three main types based on
their function:

• Communication Protocols: Help devices exchange data with each

other.
• Management Protocols: Assist in monitoring and managing networks.
• Security Protocols: Protect data during transmission to keep it secure.
Common Networking Protocols
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• Purpose: Allows communication between web browsers and servers.
• Port: 80
• Use Case: Accessing websites and transferring web pages.
• Variant: HTTPS adds encryption for security.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• Purpose: Used to transfer files between systems.
• Ports: 20 (data transfer), 21 (control)
• Use Case: Uploading and downloading files from web servers.
• Variants: SFTP and FTPS add encryption for security.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• Purpose: Sends emails from a client to a mail server.
• Port: 25 (unencrypted), 587 (secure)
• Use Case: Sending emails from applications like Outlook or Gmail.
Common Networking Protocols
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• Purpose: Retrieves emails from mail servers.
• Ports:
• 143 (unencrypted)
• 993 (secure)
• Use Case: Allows access to email from multiple devices, keeping messages synced across all.
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
• Purpose: Retrieves emails from mail servers.
• Ports:
• 110 (unencrypted)
• 995 (secure)
• Use Case: Downloads emails to a single device, usually removing them from the server.
• DNS (Domain Name System)
• Purpose: Translates website names (e.g., www.google.com) into IP addresses.
• Port: 53
• Use Case: Makes it easier to browse websites without remembering their IP addresses.
Common Networking Protocols
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
• Purpose: Automatically gives IP addresses to devices on a network.
• Ports:
• 67 (for the server)
• 68 (for the client)
• Use Case: Makes managing IP addresses easier in networks where devices frequently join and leave.
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• Purpose: Makes sure data is transferred reliably between devices.
• Ports: Varies by application.
• Use Case: Used for activities needing accurate data delivery, like web browsing, email, and file transfers.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• Purpose: Allows faster data transfer, but without guaranteed reliability.
• Ports: Varies by application.
• Use Case: Used for activities that prioritize speed over accuracy, like streaming videos, online gaming, or voice calls.
Common Networking Protocols
• IP (Internet Protocol)
• Purpose: Controls how data is addressed and routed across networks.
• Versions:
• IPv4: Uses 32-bit addresses.
• IPv6: Uses 128-bit addresses for more unique addresses.
• Use Case: It's the main protocol for sending data over the internet.
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• Purpose: Helps monitor and manage network devices like routers, switches, and servers.
• Ports:
• 161 (for queries)
• 162 (for notifications)
• Use Case: Used for checking network performance and finding faults.
• SSH (Secure Shell)
• Purpose: Provides a safe way to access and control remote systems.
• Port: 22
• Use Case: Used for securely managing servers and network devices like routers and switches.
Common Networking Protocols
• Telnet
• Purpose: Lets you remotely access devices, but unlike SSH, it doesn’t encrypt the connection.
• Port: 23
• Use Case: Often used for testing or troubleshooting devices in isolated networks.
• RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol)
• Purpose: Allows you to remotely control and use Windows computers with a graphical interface.
• Port: 3389
• Use Case: Used for managing or fixing remote Windows systems.
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
• Purpose: Helps with network diagnostics and error reporting.
• Use Case: Used by tools like ping and traceroute to check network connections and
troubleshoot routing problems.
Common Networking Protocols
• NTP (Network Time Protocol)
• Purpose: Keeps the clocks on devices in sync with each other.
• Port: 123
• Use Case: Ensures that timestamps on logs and system events are accurate
and consistent.
• VPN Protocols
• Examples: PPTP, L2TP, OpenVPN, IPsec
• Purpose: Creates secure, encrypted connections over public or private
networks.
• Use Case: Allows secure access to private networks from remote locations.
Summary Table
• Protocol Purpose Port(s) Use Case
• HTTP/HTTPS Web communication 80/443 Accessing websites
• FTP/SFTP File transfer 20, 21Uploading/downloading files
• SMTP Sending emails 25, 587 Sending emails
• IMAP/POP3 Email retrieval 143, 993/110, 995 Accessing emails
• DNS Domain name resolution 53 Browsing websites
• DHCP Dynamic IP assignment 67, 68Simplifying network setup
• TCP/UDP Data transmission Varies Web browsing, streaming
• IP Packet addressing/routing - Internet communication
• SNMP Network management 161, 162 Monitoring network devices
• SSH Secure remote access 22 Managing servers securely
• Telnet Unsecure remote access 23 Testing network devices
• RDP Remote graphical access 3389 Managing Windows devices
• ICMP Diagnostics - Connectivity testing (ping, traceroute)
• NTP Time synchronization 123 Synchronizing clocks
Practical Use in System
Administration
• Web and Email Servers: Use protocols like HTTP, SMTP, and IMAP to
handle websites and emails.
• Remote Access: SSH and RDP provide secure ways to manage systems
remotely.
• Network Troubleshooting: ICMP, DNS, and SNMP help diagnose
network issues.
• Secure Connections: VPN protocols ensure safe remote access for
users and admins.
Roles of Computers in Networks
• In a network, computers have different jobs depending on their purpose
and setup.
• Server:
• It gives resources and services (like files, apps, or websites) to other
computers (called clients) on the network.
• Examples: Web servers, database servers, file servers.
• Features:
• Powerful hardware.
• Runs all the time.
• Centralized control and management.
Roles of Computers in Networks
• Client:
• It asks for and uses resources or services from a server.
• Examples: Web browsers accessing websites, apps connecting to a database.
• Features:
• Depends on servers for data and services.
• Usually has lower performance than servers.
• Peer:
• Acts as both a client and a server in a peer-to-peer (P2P) network.
• Examples: File sharing apps like BitTorrent.
• Features:
• Decentralized system (no central server).
• Each peer can give and receive resources.
Domain-Based Network
• A domain-based network is a type of network where computers,
users, and devices are grouped and managed under a central
authority, known as a domain controller. This controller helps manage
and secure access to network resources, like files or printers, and
ensures that all devices follow the same rules and policies.

• In simple terms, it's a network where everything is organized and

controlled from one central place, making it easier to manage user
access, security, and resources.
Administration: SNA-Basics-Module-
7
• Requirements of a Server
• A server is a computer that provides services, data, or programs to other computers (clients)
on a network. Here’s what a server needs to work well:
• Powerful Processor: To handle many requests from clients at once.
• Large Memory (RAM): Helps with multitasking and storing temporary data.
• Reliable Storage: Safe storage solutions, like RAID, to protect data.
• Fast Network Connection: A high-speed network interface for quick data transfer.
• Good Cooling: Keeps the server from overheating to ensure it runs smoothly.
• Backup Power: An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to keep the server running during
power failures.
• Server Operating System: Special software, like Windows Server 2019, to manage tasks.
• Skilled Administrator: A trained person to manage and maintain the server.
Roles of System and Network
Administrators
• Key responsibilities in maintaining, troubleshooting, securing, and optimizing systems and
networks.
• Virtual Machine (VM)
• Definition: A Virtual Machine (VM) is a software-based simulation of a computer that runs
on a physical computer, allowing multiple operating systems (OS) to run at the same time
on one machine.
• Uses:
• Testing and Development: Helps test different OS versions without needing separate
physical machines.
• Resource Optimization: Makes better use of hardware by running several systems on one
computer.
• Isolation and Security: Each VM is separate, so issues in one VM don’t affect others,
improving security.
Roles of System and Network
Administrators
• VMware
• Definition: VMware is a popular company that provides software to create and manage virtual machines
(VMs).
• Popular Products:
• VMware Workstation: Virtualization software for running virtual machines on Windows and Linux
computers.
• VMware Fusion: Virtualization software for running virtual machines on macOS.
• VMware ESXi: A powerful software used in businesses to run multiple virtual machines on server hardware.
• VirtualBox
• Definition: VirtualBox is free software from Oracle that lets you create and manage virtual machines on your
computer.
• Features:
• Works with different operating systems like Windows, macOS, and Linux.
• Lets you run multiple operating systems on a single device, regardless of the main OS.
Introduction
• System and Network Administrators are key professionals who
manage and maintain an organization’s IT systems. They ensure
networks, servers, and applications run smoothly, securely, and
reliably. Their main tasks include installing, maintaining,
troubleshooting, and securing IT infrastructure, tailored to the needs
of the organization.
• Installation and Setup:
• Install operating systems (Windows, Linux), applications, and updates.
• Set up network devices (routers, switches, firewalls, etc.).
• Configure physical and virtual servers, including cloud services.
• Set up user devices for compatibility.
• Monitoring and Maintenance:
• Check system health regularly (servers, storage, network devices).
• Monitor performance and fix bottlenecks using tools like Nagios or SolarWinds.
• Apply security updates and patches.
• Schedule and verify backups for data safety.
• User Account Management:
• Create and delete user accounts, assign permissions, and ensure access is secure.
• Enforce strong passwords and set up multi-factor authentication (MFA).
• Help users with login and access issues.
• Network Security:
• Configure firewalls and VPNs for secure remote access.
• Use security tools to detect and stop threats.
• Manage antivirus software and block unauthorized access.
• Data Backup and Recovery:
• Plan and schedule data backups to protect information.
• Prepare recovery procedures for disasters like hardware failure or cyberattacks.
• Test backups regularly to ensure they work.
• Troubleshooting Issues:
• Fix hardware issues like broken drives and software errors like app crashes.
• Diagnose network problems using tools like ping and traceroute.
• Provide help desk support to employees.
• Network Optimization:
• Configure and optimize network settings and IP addresses.
• Monitor traffic and prioritize critical applications using QoS.
• Manage bandwidth to avoid network congestion.
• Documentation:
• Keep records of hardware, software, and network layouts.
• Document security policies, backup schedules, and protocols.
• Security and Compliance:
• Enforce security rules and ensure compliance with laws like GDPR or HIPAA.
• Conduct audits and fix issues identified in security checks
• Automation:
• Use scripts (e.g., PowerShell, Bash) to automate repetitive tasks like backups or
updates.
• Create monitoring scripts for key metrics like CPU usage.
• Scaling and Resource Planning:
• Plan for future needs by adding servers or storage as required.
• Manage cloud resources (e.g., AWS, Azure) and scale them as needed.
• System Upgrades and New Technologies:
• Stay updated on new tools and trends like cloud computing and cybersecurity.
• Upgrade hardware and software to keep systems modern.
• Test and implement new solutions to improve efficiency.
Skills Needed for System and
Network Administrators:
• Technical Knowledge: Know how to work with operating systems
(Windows, Linux), network protocols, and hardware.
• Problem-Solving: Be good at identifying and fixing issues effectively.
• Communication Skills: Explain technical concepts in simple terms to
non-technical people.
• Attention to Detail: Be precise when setting up systems and
monitoring security.
• Adaptability: Stay updated with new technologies and tools and learn
to use them quickly.
Conclusion
• Roles of System and Network Administrators:
• They handle technical tasks, solve problems, maintain systems, and ensure
security. Their work keeps an organization’s IT running smoothly and securely.
• Multitasking in Computing:
• Computers perform many tasks at once, like running programs and responding to
user commands, to improve efficiency.
• Roles of Computers in Networks:
• Server: Provides services (e.g., websites or data) to other devices.
• Client: Requests and uses these services (e.g., accessing a website).
• Peer: Acts as both a server and client in peer-to-peer networks (e.g., file sharing).
Conclusion
• Volatile vs. Non-Volatile Memory:

• Volatile Memory: Temporary storage (e.g., RAM) that loses data when the power is off.
• Non-Volatile Memory: Permanent storage (e.g., hard drives, SSDs) that keeps data even without
power.
• User Space vs. System Space:

• User Space: Where regular programs and applications run, with limited access to system resources.
• System Space: Reserved for the operating system, managing hardware and critical functions.
• Disk vs. Memory:

• Disk (Storage): Long-term data storage (e.g., hard drives, SSDs).

• Memory (RAM): Short-term storage for active tasks, enabling fast data access.