Z-Transform

Z- Transform
• The Z-transform is a mathematical technique used to convert
a discrete-time signal from the time domain into the complex frequency
domain. It is similar to Laplace transform for continuous-time signal.

• So what does it do ?
• Z-transform identifies the presence of exponentially increasing or decreasing
oscillations in the signal.
We will need to know first why it is required ? And how it does it ?
Z- Transform
Why it is required?
Reason 1:

• It is used for Analysis of system, particularly the impulse response of the system.

• Impulse response of system generally increase or decrease over time.

• Systems that decrease over time are stable while systems which increase over time are unstable
(outputs fall in the linear operating ranges). Its indirectly says that coefficients changes that’s why
the impulse response changes.

• Z-Transform can also determine whether a signal increase or decrease over time but don’t
oscillate !
Z- Transform
Why it is required?
Reason 2:
• To determine the frequency response of the system, thereby it can be used to design a system with a
particular frequency response
• The frequency response says how the amplitude and phase of sinusoidal signal would be altered by the
system. Thus by analyzing the Amplitude and Phase we can identify how the sinusoidal signal is altered by
the system
• As we know that any signal can be decomposed in terms of sinusoidal components using Fourier transform.
• To determine the frequency response of the system, we need to pass the impulse to the system. Since
impulse gives us the signal which contains all possible sinusoidal components.
• If you apply Fourier's analysis on the impulse response, you would be able to identify a how the sinusoidal
signals are modified.
Thus, we Z-transform performs
these -
• By identifying the presence of increasing or decreasing oscillation in the impulse response of the
system we can determine whether a system is stable or unstable.
• By identifying the presence of sinusoids in the impulse response of the system, we can determine
the systems frequency response.

By applying Z-transform to the impulse response of a system, we are performing both of these tasks.
Lets understand this equation using
a simpler case
Consider a simple case, when x[n] = [2 3 -1 4] and z[n] = [1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ….] (a non-
oscillation signal or a DC signal)

• Performing a simple multiplication and summation as per equation:

= [2*1] + [3*1] + [-1*1] + [4*1]
= [2+3-1+4]
= [2]
• This process of multiplying the signal and summing the samples produced is
known as correlation
• Correlation helps to say the similarity between two signals or to identify the
presence of one signal in the other signal.
A simpler case
• The larger the magnitude of the signal after obtained indicates the
more strong presence of one signal on the other.
• Correlation of 2 indicates that there exits a non-oscillating signal or
DC signal being present
Similarly, when x[n] = [3, -3, 3, -3] in the same case,
= [3*1]+[-3*1]+[3*1]+[-3*1]
= [0]
we get the resultant sum = 0, indicates that there is no DC component.
Z transform – understanding the
equation
• Similarly, we can represent z[n] as any signal based on the value of ‘z’
• Thus, Z-transform is basically a correlation or a measure of similarity
with all of the types of signal
• How value of Z influence the signal ?
• Z – complex number
Visualization

• Plotting it shows r is exponential decreasing or increasing curve based on ‘n’

Can be represented as ‘’
Pair of sinusoidal waveforms = cosine and sine waveform with frequency (radians/sample)
Visualization
So z[n] means -
Thus
• Z[n] can be visualized as set of oscillating components which are
generally decreasing or increasing exponentially over time expect
when r = 1 (constant)
 In terms of Cartesian co-ordinates

• r=
• =
Visualization

Any point on the unit circle is associated with a complex number with a magnitude of 1.
If z is on unit circle z comprise pf two sinusoidal components which don’t cjange in amplitude
 Transfer function
• The Z-Transform is used to represent discrete-time signals in the frequency domain, and
when applied to a system, it can describe the relationship between the input and output
signals through a transfer function.
• The transfer function provides a mathematical description of the system's behavior in terms
of the Z-domain, and it is widely used for system analysis in digital signal processing and
control systems.
What is a Transfer Function?
• In the context of discrete-time systems, the transfer function H(z)H(z) is defined as the ratio
of the Z-transform of the output to the Z-transform of the input under zero initial conditions.
It describes how the system processes an input signal to produce an output signal.
• For a system with input x[n] and output y[n], the transfer function H(z) is written as:
H(z)=Y(z)/X(z)
​where:
• Y(z) is the Z-transform of the output signal y[n],
• X(z) is the Z-transform of the input signal x[n],
• H(z) is the transfer function of the system in the Z-domain.
• Typically, a linear time-invariant (LTI) system can be
described by a difference equation relating the input x[n] and
output y[n]

• Using the time shifting property of Z-transform

Relationship Between Z-Transform and Transfer Function:
• The Z-Transform is a mathematical tool that transforms time-domain
signals into the Z-domain, making it easier to analyze discrete
systems.
• The Transfer Function is the ratio of the Z-transform of the system's
output to its input, and it characterizes how a system responds to
different inputs.
• The poles and zeros of the transfer function H(z) are of critical
importance:
• Poles: The values of z where H(z) becomes infinite (i.e., the
denominator A(z)=0.
• Zeros: The values of z where H(z)=0 (i.e., the numerator B(z)=0).
• The region of convergence (ROC) is the area in the z-plane where H(z) is valid
and convergent.
 Region of convergence
• The Region of Convergence (ROC) in the Z-Transform is the set of values in the
complex plane (the z-plane) where the Z-transform of a signal converges (i.e.,
the series sum is finite)
Convergence condition:
• The ROC defines the area in the z-plane where the magnitude of ensures the
Z-transform sum is finite. For signals, this often depends on the rate of growth
or decay of x[n].

Steps:
1. Find the Z-transform of a signal
2. Identify poles and zeros
3. Draw the Z-plane, marking the locations of poles and zeros. Then, shade the
region where the ROC is valid
ROC
• Z-transform is guaranteed to converge if is absolutely summable.

• This shows that

• Thus, ROC consists of those values of for which z-transform

converges
Properties
• ROC of X(Z) consists of ring in the z-plane centered about the orgin
• The ROC does not contain any poles
• Right-sided signals: Signals like x (causal signals) are only defined
for n≥0. For such signals, the ROC is outside a circle: ∣z∣>∣a∣,
where a determines the growth rate of the signal.
• Left-sided signals: Signals like (anti-causal signals) are defined
for n<0. For these signals, the ROC is inside a circle: ∣z∣<∣a∣.
• Two-sided signals: For signals that exist for both positive and
negative n, the ROC will be a ring between two radii in the zz-
plane: r1<∣z∣<r2.
ROC curve
• The graphical representation of complex number z =r in terms of
complex plane is called z-plane
represents a unit circle z-plane
Img(z) Img(z)
P
r Z=
r =1
r
Re(z)

𝜔
Re(z)
0
Z-plane
Key Differences Between DTFT and Z-Transform:
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) only exists for signals
that are absolutely summable, meaning the sum of the absolute
values of the signal's terms must converge. This restricts its
use to bounded and non-divergent signals.
However, the Z-Transform (ZT) can be applied to a broader class
of signals, including diverging ones, because of its flexibility
with the region of convergence (ROC).
DTFT (Discrete-Time Fourier Transform):
•The DTFT is typically used for analysing stable, bounded signals.

• For a signal x[n], the DTFT is defined as:

•The DTFT exists only if the sum converges, which means that x[n] must be absolutely
summable

•It primarily provides frequency-domain analysis for stable signal

Z-transform
• The Z-Transform generalizes the DTFT by introducing a complex variable ,
where r is the radial distance in the complex plane and is the angular
frequency:

• Unlike the DTFT, the Z-Transform can exist even for diverging signals. For
example, exponentially growing signals can still have a well-defined Z-
transform depending on the region of convergence (ROC) of the sum.
• The ROC specifies where the Z-transform is valid in the complex plane and
allows analysis of both causal and anti-causal signals, whether stable or
unstable.
Why Use Z-Transform for Diverging
Signals?
• Z-Transform provides more flexibility because it can handle signals that
grow exponentially, such as

• where is the unit step function and ∣r∣>1∣ leads to divergence as n→∞.
• By manipulating the radius ∣z∣ and defining the ROC, you can analyze the
behavior of signals that would otherwise be unmanageable by the DTFT.
• DTFT is essentially a special case of the Z-transform when evaluated on
the unit circle z=ejω. Thus, signals that are unstable for DTFT (like those
that grow without bound) may still be analyzed using the Z-Transform in
regions away from the unit circle.
• Consider the diverging signal where u[n] is the unit step function.
• DTFT of x[n] does not exist because:

• The sum diverges, and thus no DTFT can be calculated.

• Z-Transform of x[n] exists and is:

• The Z-transform is valid in the region ∣z∣>2, which allows analysis of this
signal even though it diverges in the time domain.
Summarize
• DTFT is limited to analyzing bounded and stable signals.
• Z-Transform allows analysis of a wider range of signals, including
those that are diverging or unstable by defining an
appropriate region of convergence (ROC)
Problem
Img(z)

0 1
a Re(z)

For convergence, ||< 1 or |Z| > |a|

Problem
Img(z)
, |z|<|a|

, |z|<|a|
1 Re(z)
, |z|<|a| 0 a

For convergence or |z|<|a|

 Problem
Img(z)

1 Re(z)
0 a

, |z|<|a|

, |z|<|a|
, |z|<|a|

For convergence or |z|<|a|

The ROC depends on whether the sequence is right-sided or left-sided.
• For right-sided sequences (which are non-zero for n≥0), the ROC is
typically outside the outermost pole, i.e., ∣z∣>(some value).
• For left-sided sequences (which are non-zero for n≤−1), the ROC is
typically inside the innermost pole, i.e., ∣z∣<(some value).