FUELS

A combustible substance which on

proper burning in air liberates huge
amount of heat, that can be used
economically for domestic and
industrial purposes

Eg. coke, coal, charcoal, petroleum

diesel etc
 CLASSIFICATION
On the basis of occurrence
•Natural or primary
•Artificial or secondary

On the basis of physical state

•Solid
•Liquid
•Gas
 CLASSIFICATION
Fuels

Primary or natural Secondary or derived

Solid liquid Gaseous

Wood crude oil Natural gas
Coal
Dung
solid liquid gaseous
coke tar coal gas
charcoal kerosene water gas
coke diesel oil gas
briquette Petrol bio gas
LPG
CHARACTERISTICS OF A
GOOD FUEL
1. High Calorific value
2. Low moisture contents
3. Moderate ignition temperature
4. Low ash content
5. No harmful combustion product formation
6. Moderate rate of combustion
7. low cost
8. Easy to transport and store
Gas CO H 2% CH4% N2% CO2 Other gases
% %
Natural gas - - 85 - - C2H6=8
C3H8=4
C4H10=1.5
Higher=1.5
Water gas 44 48 0.8 3 4.2 -

Producer gas 22-30 8-12 small 52-55 3 -

Semiwater gas 25-28 10-12 1-1.5 50-55 4-5 -

Coal gas 5-10 45-48 32-35 4-8 1 C2H4=3

C2H2=2
Oil gas 10-15 50-55 25-30 - 3 C2H4=10-12
Comparision between solid,
liquid and gaseous fuels

Properties Solid fuels Liquid fuels Gaseous

fuels
Price Cheap and Costly Costly except
easily natural gas
available
Storage easy Must be Stored in leak
stored in proof tanks
closed
containers
carefully
Combustion slow quick Very fast

Fire hazards Less risk Greater risk Even greater

than liquid
fuels

Smoke and Always Ash is not Neither ash nor

ash produced and produced but smoke is
reduces smoke is produced
calorific value produced

Calorific value least higher Highest

Transport easy Transported Transported

easily though through
pipelines pipelines
 CALORIFIC VALUE
1g compound + O2 CO2 +H2O, ∆H= ?
Here, ∆H = calorific value
UNITS
1. Calorie : For 1g of water by 1oC
1calorie = 4.184 Joule = 4.185 x 107 ergs
2. K Calorie : For 1 kg of water by 1oC = 1000 calorie
3. British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.): For 1 pound of
water by 1oF
4. Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U.): For 1 pound by 1oC

1k.cal = 1000Cal = 3.968 B.Th.U. = 2.2 C.H.U.

GROSS OR HIGHER CALORIFIC VALUE
(HCV)

Heat evolved when a unit quantity of a fuel is completely

burnt and the products of combustion are cooled to room
temperature.

A + O2 CO2 + H2O(v) , ∆H1=x

H2O(v) H2O(l) , ∆H2 = y
(y = latent heat of steam)

So, HCV = Total ∆H = x+ y

LOWER OR NET CALORIFIC VALUE (LCV or
NCV)

Heat evolved when a unit quantity of a fuel is completely

burnt and the products of combustion are allowed to escape
at room temperature.

A + O2 CO2 + H2O(v) , ∆H1=x

LCV = x
= HCV – latent heat of water
vapours formed
= HCV – 0.09 x H x 587 cal/g
(where, H = % of hydrogen in the fuel)
 Differences between Gross and
Net calorific value
S.No. GCV NCV
1 The amount of heat The amount of heat
released when unit quantity released when unit quantity
of fuel is burnt completely of fuel is burnt completely
and the products of and the products of
combustion are cooled to combustion are allowed to
room temperature. escape at room temp.

2 Latent heat of condensation Latent heat of condensation

of steam is included of steam is not included
3 It is also known as Higher It is also known as Lower
Calorific Value Calorific Value
4 Having more value than Having lesser value than
BOMB CALORIMETER
 CALCULATIONS
Mass of fuel taken in calorimeter = m g
Mass of water taken in calorimeter=Wg
Water equivalent of calorimeter bomb, thermometer etc.= w g
Initial temp. of water in calorimeter = t1
Final temp. of water in calorimeter = t2
Heat liberated by burning of fuel = m x HCV
Heat absorbed by water= W x S x (t2-t1)
Heat absorbed by apparatus= w x S x (t2-t1)
Since S = 1 cal / g 0C
Heat absorbed by water, calorimeter etc = (W+w)(t2-t1)
Heat liberated = heat gained
m x HCV = (W + w)(t2-t1)
HCV = (W+w)(t2-t1) cal/g or kcal/kg
m
Let H be the % of hydrogen in the fuel then
LCV = HCV – 0.09H x 587 cal/g or kcal/kg

Corrections
(i)Fuse wire correction (CF) : should be subtracted.
(ii) Acid correction (CA) : should be subtracted.
(iii) Cooling correction (CC) : should be added.

So, HCV = (W + w)(t2-t1+CC)-(CF+CA) cal/g

m
 PROBLEM
A sample of coal contains: C = 93%, H = 6% and ash =
1%. The following data were obtained when the above
coal was tested in a bomb calorimeter:
Weight of cool burnt = 0.92 g
Weight of water taken = 550 g
Water equivalent of bomb and calorimeter = 2,200 g
Rise in temperature = 2.42°C
Fuse wire correct = 10.0 cal
Acid correction = 50.0 cal
Calculate the gross and net calorific value of coal,
assuming that the latent heat of condensation of steam is
580 cal/g.
Answer: GCV = 7168.47 cal/g NCV = 6855.27 cal/g
 COAL SAMPLE ANALYSIS

1.Proximate analysis
2.Ultimate analysis
 ANALYSIS OF COAL SAMPLE
Coal is a highly carbonaceous matter that has been
formed from fossilized remains of plants under
suitable conditions.

ANALYSIS- 2 types
1. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS - includes the
determination of moisture, volatile matter, ash and
fixed carbon
(i) Moisture: at 110oC for 1 hour in oven
% of moisture = wt of moisture ( Loss in wt) x 100
wt of coal sample
(ii) Volatile matter : at 925 ± 25 oC for 7 minutes
% of volatile matter = Loss of wt due to removal of
volatile matter x 100
wt of coal sample taken
(iii) Ash content: at 700-750oC for half an hour
% of ash = wt of ash x 100
wt of coal sample taken
(iv) Fixed carbon = 100- % of (moisture + ash +
volatile matter)
SIGNIFICANCE:
Higher % of fixed carbon Higher calorific
value better fuel
 PROBLEM
A sample of coal was analysed as follows:
Exactly 2.5g was weighed in a silica crucible. After
heating for one hour at 110°C, the residue weighed
2.415g. The crucible next was covered with a vented lid
and strongly heated for exactly 7 minutes at 950±20°C.
The residue weighed 1.528g. The crucible was then
heated without cover, until a constant weight was
obtained. The last residue was found to weigh 0.245g.
Calculate the % results of the above analysis.
•ANSWER
Moisture = 3.4% Volatile matter= 35.48%
Ash = 9.8% Fixed Carbon = 51.32%
 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF
COAL
Includes the estimation of % of elements in
the fuel
(i)Determination of C & H
C + O2 CO2
H2 + O2 H2O
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O
CaCl2 + 7H2O CaCl2.7H2O
% of C =Increase in the wt of KOH tube x 12 x 100
Wt of coal sample taken x 44

% of H = Increase in the wt of CaCl2 tube x 2 x 100

Wt of coal sample taken x 18
 (ii) Determination of N: Kjeldahl method

Fuel(W g) + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

(NH4)2SO4 + NaOH NH3 +Na2SO4 + H2O
Known amount
of HCl

NH3 is neutralised Excess HCl

(Titrated against alkali)

Mass of fuel = W g
Volume of acid used to neutralize NH3 = V ml
Normality of HCl = N
Eq. of HCl = Eq. of NH3 = Eq. of N
NV = wt of N(w) = w
1000 E of N 14
% of N = 1.4 NV
W
 PROBLEM

1.0g of a sample of coal was used for nitrogen estimation

by Kjeldahl method. The evolved ammonia was collected
in 25ml N/10 sulfuric acid. To neutralize excess acid,
15ml of 0.1N sodium hydroxide was required. Determine
the percentage of nitrogen in the given sample of coal.

ANSWER
1.4%
 Determination of S:
• m
• S+ O2 SO2 H2SO4
BaCl2

BaSO4
(z gm)
• S BaSO4
• 32 gm 233 gm
• % of S = Wt of BaSO4 ppt x 32 x 100
Wt of coal sample taken x 233

• % of Oxygen = 100-(% of all other

elements)
(V) DETERMINATION OF O:

% of O = 100 - % of (C + H + N + S + ash)
 Fractional
Distillation of
Petroleum
 Petroleum

Light Sweet Crude Oil Heavy Sweet Crude Oil

Petroleum is a mixture of thousands

of different types of hydrocarbons.
 Where We Get Oil?

The world's top five crude oil-producing

countries are:
• Saudi Arabia
• United States
• Russia
• China
• Iran
Composition of petroleum

• C : 80-87%
• H : 15%
• S,N,O : 1%
 Composition of Crude Oil
CRUDE OIL

HYDROCARBONS NON-HYDROCARBONS

ALIPHATICS AROMATICS NAPHTHENES SULFURS NITROGENS OXYGENS METALLICS

25% 17% 50% <8% <1% <3% <100PPM

C1 - C60 (C6H5)n O
CYCLOALKANES
SH

N
H COOH
S
 Fractional Distillation of
Petroleum

• Petroleum can be separated into different

fractions by fractional distillation.

• This separation can take place because

petroleum is a mixture of substances
with different boiling points.
Conditions for Oil Refining

• Petroleum is heated to 360C in the

absence of air in a furnace to vaporize
it before fractional distillation.
 Question

tWhy is petroleum vaporized in the

absence of air at 360C?

It may ignite and cause an explosion!

CRUDE Petroleum delivered from well field

DESALTING Water washing to remove impurities

Distillation to separate by boiling point ranges

REFINING

REFORMING Conversion reactions to alter molecular

structures

Mixing to obtain maximum commercial

BLENDING characteristics
 Fractional distillation of crude
petroleum
• The crude oil is heated to about 400 deg C in a
furnace, where all volatile constituents, except the
residue are evaporated
• The hot vapours are then passed up the
fractionating column
• The column is a tall cylindrical tower containing a
number of horizontal stainless steel trays at short
distances
• Each tray is provided with small chimney, covered
with loose cap.As vapours go up, they become
gradually cooler and fractional condensation
takes place at different heights of column.
• Higher boiling fraction condenses first, while the
lower boiling fractions turn by turn
 Fractions of Crude Distillation
Name of fraction Boiling range Carbon atoms

1 Uncondensed gas Below 30 deg C C1 to C4

2 Petroleum ether 30-70 deg C C5-C7

3 Gasoline/Petrol/Motor 40-120 deg C C5-C9

Spirit

4 Naphtha or Solvent 120-180 deg C C9-C10

Spirit

5 Kerosene Oil 180-250 deg C C10-C16

6 Diesel oil /Fuel oil /Gas 250-320 deg C C10-C18

oil

7 Heavy Oil 320-400 deg C C17-C30

8 Residue Above 400 deg C C30 and above

 LPG
(bottled gas or refinery gas)

• Constituents: n-butane+isobutane+butene+propane
• Preparation: Obtained as by-product during
heavy oil cracking and from natural gas
• a Dehydrated
• Desulphurised
• Odorous organic sulphides (mercaptanes, etanethiol)
added
• Supplied under pressure
• Calorific value: 27,800KCal/kg
 KNOCKING

• The metallic sound produced due to the irregular

burning of the fuel.
• Causes loss in power of engine.
• Reason: Mistimed ignition due to increase in
temperature of the cylinder resulting from the
heat of compression.
• Prevention: Antiknocking agent and use of good quality fuel
• Knocking α 1 α 1
Octane number Fuel efficiency
• Knocking among different categories of compounds:
Straight chain paraffins > branched chain paraffins >
olefins > naphthenes > aromatics.
 OCTANE NUMBER

• O.N. signifies the ignition quality of gasoline in

automobile engines.
• For grading gasoline C5-C9 (Petrol)
Isooctane = 100
n-heptane = 0
• The % of isooctane present in the mixture of isooctane
and n-heptane which has the same knocking property as
the fuel itself.
• More the octane number, better the fuel efficiency.
Reasons for opting the blend of iso-octane & n-heptane:

• The different hydrocarbon in gasoline:

Straight chain paraffin
Iso-paraffins
Naphthenes
Aromatics
• For the same Carbon No; straight chain paraffin have lowest
octane No.
• Branched chain paraffin (isomers), Naphthenes have higher
octane No.
• Olefins also have high O.N. but they cause gum deposits in the
fuel tank and are not desirable.
• Aromatic have high O.N. but their content is being restricted
due to their carcinogenic nature.
 Octane numbers of few hydrocarbons:

Carbon Hydrocarbon Octane No.

C6 – Straight chain n- Hexane 28.8
C6 – Isomer Methyl Pentane 73.4
C6 – Isomer Dimethyl Butane 91.8
C6 – Napthenes Cyclohexane 83
C6 – Aromatic Benzene 98
C7 – Paraffin n - Heptane 0
C7 – Isomer Dimethyl Pentane 88
C8 – Isomer Iso – Octane 100
C7 – Aromatics Toluene 107
Methods to increase octane number:

1. By adding the antiknocking agent: e.g. TEL (about 1.0-

3.0 ml /gallon petrol) along with some ethylene
dibromide.
2. By isomerisation
3. By alkylation
4. By aromatisation
 CETANE NUMBER
• For grading diesel oil (C10-C18)
• Normal paraffin's have highest cetane no. followed by
naphthenes, isoparaffins, olefins and aromatics.
• For grading diesel oil.
Hexadecane (cetane) = 100
α- methyl naphthalene = 0
• The % of cetane present in the mixture of cetane and

α-methyl naphthalene which has the same ignition

property as the fuel itself.
• More the cetane number, better the fuel efficiency.
• To increase cetane no. pre-ignition dopes like ethyl nitrile,
 FLASH POINT
The flash point of a volatile liquid is the lowest
temperature at which it can vaporise to form an
ignitable mixture in air.
At the flash point, the vapour may cease to burn when
the source of ignition is removed.
Or
The minimum temperature, at which the sample gives
sufficient vapours, which forms an ignition mixture
with air, giving a flash when a flame is applied to it,
is called flash point.
 FIRE POINT

A slightly higher temperature, the fire point, is

defined as the temperature at which the vapour
continues to burn after being ignited.
 Reforming

• Reforming is a process which uses

heat, pressure and a catalyst (usually
containing platinum) to bring about
chemical reactions which upgrade
naphthas into high octane petrol and
petrochemical feedstock.
Catalytic Reforming – Conversion
Reactions
Dehydrogenation of cycloalkanes to aromatics

CH3 CH3

3H2

Dehydroisomerization of cyclopentanes to aromatics

CH3

3H2

Isomerization of alkanes

CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 H3C CH CH2 CH3

Dehdrocyclization of alkanes
CH3

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 4 H2

Hydrocracking of alkanes

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH3

 Cracking
• Cracking processes break down
heavier hydrocarbon molecules
(high boiling point oils) into lighter
products such as petrol and diesel.
These processes include:
1. catalytic cracking
2. thermal cracking
3. hydrocracking
 Alkylation
• Alkylation refers to the chemical
bonding of these light molecules
with isobutane to form larger
branched-chain molecules
(isoparaffins) that make high octane
petrol.
 Isomerisation
• Isomerisation refers to chemical
rearrangement of straight-chain
hydrocarbons (paraffins), so that
they contain branches attached to
the main chain (isoparaffins).
 Polymerisation
• Under pressure and temperature, over an
acidic catalyst, light unsaturated
hydrocarbon molecules react and
combine with each other to form larger
hydrocarbon molecules. Such process
can be used to react butenes (olefin
molecules with four carbon atoms) with
iso-butane (branched paraffin molecules,
or isoparaffins, with four carbon atoms) to
obtain a high octane olefinic petrol
blending component called polymer
gasoline.
 Hydrotreating
• Hydrotreating is one way of removing
many of the contaminants from many of
the intermediate or final products. In the
hydrotreating process, the entering
feedstock is mixed with hydrogen and
heated to 300 - 380oC. The oil combined
with the hydrogen then enters a reactor
loaded with a catalyst which promotes
several reactions:
hydrogen combines with sulphur to form
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) .