18ECO101T

SHORT RANGE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

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Dr. D. Tharani
ECE
 SHORT RANGE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Unit-2 – Baseband coding basics

1 Types of Antennas-Dipole, groundplane, loop, Helical, Patch antennas
2 Antenna Characteristics- Impedance, directivity and gain, Effective
area, Polarization, Bandwidth, Antenna factor
3 Baseband Data Format and Protocol - Radio Communication Link
Diagram, Code Hopping
4 Baseband Coding-Digital systems,
Wireless Microphone System
5 RF Frequency and Bandwidth-factors
Propagation Characteristics
6 Modulation types, Modulation for digital event communication
7 Continuous Digital Communication
Advanced Digital Modulation
8 Spread Spectrum-DSSS, Spread Spectrum-FHSS
9 RFID-transceiver, Design issues for RFID

Baseband is the transmission of a signal in its original, unmodulated form

 Antenna
• Interface between the transmitter or the receiver and the propagation medium
• Deciding factor performance of a radio communication system.
• Principal properties of antennas—directivity, gain, and radiation resistance —are the
same whether referred to as transmitting or receiving.
• The principle of reciprocity states that the power transferred between two antennas
is the same, regardless of which is used for transmission or reception, if the generator
and load impedances are conjugates of the transmitting and receiving antenna
impedances in each case.
Antenna characteristics
• primary concern in choosing an antenna type is its physical size
1. Antenna impedance
• facilitates the transfer of power between the communication medium and the
transmitter or receiver.
• The antenna impedance is the load for the transmitter or the input impedance to
the receiver.
• It is composed of three parts—radiation resistance, loss resistance, and reactance.
• Radiation resistance is a virtual resistance that, when multiplied by the square of
the RMS current in the antenna at its feed point, equals the power radiated by the
antenna in the case of a transmitter.
how antenna works https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZaXm6wau-jc
 Antenna characteristics Isotropic and omni https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xAVH7AY50ns

•Transmitter power delivered to an antenna will always be greater than the power
radiated.
•difference between the transmitter power and the radiated power is power dissipated
in the resistance of the antenna conductor and in other losses.
•The efficiency of an antenna is the ratio of the radiated power to the total power
absorbed by the antenna.

•Maximum power transfer between the antenna and transmitter or receiver will occur
only when the impedance seen from the antenna terminals is the complex conjugate of
the antenna impedance.
2. Directivity and gain
•Relates to its radiation pattern. An antenna which radiates uniformly in all directions in
three-dimensional space is called an isotropic antenna. Such an antenna doesn’t exist.
•All real antennas radiate stronger in some directions than in others
•It is defined as the power density of the antenna in its direction of maximum radiation
in three-dimensional space divided by its average power density.
•Directivity of the hypothetical isotropic radiator 1 or 0 dB
•Directivity of a half-wave dipole antenna is 1.64 or 2.15 dB
 Antenna characteristics

Short dipole antenna (A) Directive pattern in plane containing antenna

and (B) solid diagram.
• A vertical wire antenna is omnidirectional; that is, it has a circular horizontal radiation
pattern and directivity in the vertical plane.
• Gain of an antenna is the directivity times the antenna efficiency.
• When antenna losses are low, the two terms are almost the same.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=edyFGAT_87o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UOVwjKi4B6Y
 Antenna characteristics
3. Effective area
• shows us that the capture ability of an antenna of given gain G grows proportionally as
the square of the wavelength.

• It holds for both transmitting and receiving antennas.

• The power density is the radiated power divided by the surface area of the sphere.
When the electric field strength E is known, the power density S is

• Received power Pr can be found when field strength is known

Power captured by the receiving antenna = capture area, or effective area, of the antenna × the
power density at that location.

• Effective antenna area has some connection with the physical size of the antenna.
• Short-range devices are often portable or are otherwise limited in size, and their
antennas may have roughly the same dimensions, regardless of frequency
 Propagation of EM wave

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EM-Wave.gif
Simulation: https://emanim.szialab.org/index.html

Polarization types: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0qrU4nprB0

 Antenna characteristics
4. Polarization
• Electromagnetic radiation is composed of a magnetic field and an electric field.
• In the far field, beyond around a wavelength from the antenna, these fields are at right
angles to each other, and both are in a plane normal to the direction of propagation.
• The direction of polarization refers to the direction of the electric field in relation to
the earth.
1. Linear polarization is created by a straight wire antenna.
• A wire antenna parallel to the earth is horizontally polarized and a wire antenna
normal to the earth is vertically polarized.
2. Elliptical polarization :The electric and magnetic fields may rotate in their plane around
the direction of propagation
• created by perpendicular antenna elements being fed by RF signals on the
communication frequency that are not in the same time phase with each other.
3. Circular polarization results when these elements are fed by equal power RF signals
which differ in phase by 90°, which causes the electric (and magnetic) field to make a
complete 360° rotation every period of the wave (a time of 1/frequency seconds)
• Helical antenna, produce elliptic or circular polarization inherently, without having two
feed points.
 Antenna characteristics-Polarization-cont..
• Two types of elliptical polarization, right hand and left hand, which are distinguished by
the direction of rotation of the electric field
• The polarization of a wave, or an antenna, is important for several reasons.
• A horizontally polarized receiving antenna cannot receive vertically polarized radiation
from a vertical transmitting antenna, and vice versa.
• Similarly, right-hand and left-hand circular antenna systems are not compatible.
• Except for directional, line-of-sight microwave systems, the polarity of a signal may
change during propagation between transmitter and receiver because of reflections.
• Most short-range radio applications, a horizontal antenna will receive transmissions
from a vertical antenna, for example, albeit with some attenuation.
• The term cross polarization defines the degree to which a transmission from an
antenna of one polarization can be received by an antenna of the opposite
polarization.
• Often, the polarization of a transmitter or receiver antenna is not well defined, such as
in the case of a handheld device.
• A circular polarized antenna can be used when the opposite antenna polarization is
not defined
• Cross polarization between antennas results in signal attenuation.
5.Bandwidth
• Antenna bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the antenna can operate
while some other characteristic remains within a defined range.
 Antenna characteristics
• A narrow bandwidth or high Q antenna will discriminate against harmonics and other
spurious radiation and thereby will reduce the requirements for a supplementary filter
• Changing proximity of nearby objects or the “hand effect” of portable transmitters can
also cause a reduction of power or even a pulling of frequency, particularly in low-
power transmitters.

6. Antenna factor
• commonly used with calibrated test antennas
to make field strength measurements on a
test receiver or spectrum analyzer.
• It relates the field strength to the voltage
across the antenna terminals when the
antenna is terminated in its specified
impedance (usually 50 or 75 ohms).

• where AF is the antenna factor in per m, E is

the field strength in V/m, V is the load
voltage in V.
 SHORT RANGE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Antenna characteristics-summary
1. Antenna impedance
• It is composed of three parts—radiation resistance, loss resistance, and reactance.
• Antenna efficiency:

2. Directivity and gain

3. Effective area
Capture capability of antenna

4. Polarization
• refers to the direction of the
electric field in relation to
the earth.

5.Bandwidth-range of frequencies over which the antenna can operate while some other
characteristic remains within a defined range.
6. Antenna factor
Types of Antenna
 Types of Antenna
• We review the characteristics of several types of antennas
that are used in short-range radio devices.
1. Dipole
• dipole is a wire antenna fed at its center.
• length is one-half wavelength.
• In free space, its radiation resistance is 73 ohms, but
that value will vary somewhat in the presence of the
ground or other large conducting objects.
• usually mounted horizontally.
• In free space, the radiation pattern of a horizontal half-
wave dipole is similar to that of the small dipole
• has a directivity of 1.64 or 2.15 dB in the horizontal
plane perpendicular to the wire direction
• presence of ground, or any other nearby conducting
object, greatly influences the pattern.
• When used indoors where there are a multitude of
reflections from walls, floor, and ceiling, the horizontal
dipole can give good results in all directions.
• convenient to use because it is easy to match a
transmitter or receiver to its radiation resistance.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LarjFFEe6ss
Types of Antenna
1. Dipole
• It has high efficiency
• Also, the antenna characteristics are not much affected by the size or shape of the
device it is used with, and it doesn’t use a ground plane.
• In spite of its many attractive features, the half-wave dipole is not commonly used
with short-range radio equipment.
• On the common low UHF unlicensed frequency bands, it is too large for many
applications, particularly small portable devices.
• TV & radio receivers.
2. Ground plane or monopole antenna
• cordless telephones, Cellular, CB radios, walkie-talkies
• dipole can be mounted vertically.
• If we take one dipole element and mount it perpendicular to a large
metal plate, then we don’t need the bottom element—a virtual element
will be electrically reflected from the plate. This is called a monopole
antenna.
• When the metal plate is approximately one-half wavelength square or
larger, the radiation resistance of the antenna is around 36 ohms, and a
good match to the receiver or transmitter can be obtained.
• In many short-range devices, a quarter-wave vertical element is used
without a suitable ground plane, or, due to space restrictions, the
radiating element may be less than one quarter wave long.
 Types of Antenna
2. Ground plane or monopole antenna
•In these cases, the radiation resistance is much lower than 36 ohms, and there is
considerable capacitance reactance.
• The electrical length can be increased and capacitive reactance reduced by winding
the bottom part of the antenna element into a coil having several turns. In this way, the
loss resistance is reduced and efficiency increased helical antenna
3. Loop antenna

• popular for hand-held transmitters

particularly because it can be printed on a
small circuit board and is less affected by
nearby conducting objects than other small
resonant antennas.
• Its biggest drawback is that it is very
inefficient.
• frequently used in small hand-held remote
control transmitters on the low UHF
frequencies.
• The radiation resistance is generally below a
tenth of an ohm and the efficiency under
10%.
• radiation resistance and hence the efficiency
Types of Antenna
3. Loop antenna
• Because of the low efficiency of the loop antenna, it is rarely
used in UHF shortrange receivers. •
• An exception is pager receivers, which use low data rates and
high sensitivity to help compensate for the low antenna
efficiency.
• One advantage of the loop antenna is that it doesn’t require a
ground plane.
• In low-power unlicensed transmitters, the low efficiency of
the loop is not of much concern
4. Helical antenna
• give much better results than the loop antenna, when
radiation efficiency is important, while still maintaining
a relatively small size compared to a dipole or quarter-
wave ground plane.
• made by winding stiff wire in the form of a spring, whose
diameter and pitch are very much smaller than a
wavelength, or by winding wire on a cylindrical form
• This helical winding creates an apparent axial velocity
along the spring which is much less than the velocity of
propagation along a straight wire which is
approximately the speed of light in space.
 Types of Antenna
4. Helical antenna
• Quarter wave on the helical spring will be much shorter
• than on a straight wire.
• The antenna is resonant for this length, but the radiation resistance will be lower, and
consequently the efficiency is less than that obtained from a standard quarter-wave
antenna.
• Impedance matching to a transmitter or receiver is relatively easy.
• Radiation from a helical antenna has both vertical and horizontal components, so its
polarization is elliptic.
• The helical antenna should have a good ground plane for best and predictable
performance.
• satellite & space probe communication
 Types of Antenna
5. Patch antenna
• convenient for microwave frequencies, specifically on the 2.4-
GHz band and higher.
• consists of a plated geometric form (the patch) on one side of a
PCB, backed up on the opposite board side by a ground
plane which extends beyond the dimensions of the
radiating patch
• Rectangular and circular forms are the most common, but
other shapes—for example, a trapezoid are sometimes
used.
• Maximum radiation is perpendicular to the board.
• A square half-wave patch antenna has a directivity of 7 to 8
dB.
 Types of Antenna
5. Patch antenna
• The dimension L is approximately a half
wavelength, calculated as half the free space
wavelength (λ) divided by the square root of the
effective dielectric constant (ε) of the board
material.

• It must actually be slightly less than a half wavelength because of the fringing effect of
the radiation from the two opposite patch edges that are L apart and the ground plane.
• As long as the feed is on the centerline, the two other edges don’t radiate.
• The figure shows a microstrip feeder, which is convenient because it is etched on the
board together with the patch and other component traces on the same side.
• The impedance at the feed point depends on the width W of the patch.
• In this way a 50-ohm coax transmission line can be connected directly to the underside of
the patch antenna, with the center conductor going to the feed point through a via and
the shield soldered to the ground plane.
 Radio Communication Link Diagram
• The link transfers information originating at one location, referred to as source data, to
another location where it is referred to as reconstructed data.
Radio Communication Link Diagram
• A more concrete implementation of a wireless system, an intrusion detection system.
 Baseband Data Format and Protocol
Change-of-state source data
• Many short-range systems only have to relay information about the state of a contact.
• This is true of the security system where an infrared motion detector notifies the
control panel when motion is detected.
• Another example is the pushbutton transmitter, which may be used as a panic button
or as a way to activate and deactivate the control system, or a wireless smoke
detector, which gives advance warning of an impending fire.
• There are also what are often referred to as “technical” alarms—gas detectors, water
level detectors, and low and high temperature detectors—whose function is to give
notice of an abnormal situation.
• All these examples are very low-bandwidth information sources.
• Change of state occurs relatively rarely, and when it does, we usually don’t care if
knowledge of the event is signaled tens or even hundreds of milliseconds after it occurs.
• It would be possible to maintain this very low bandwidth by using the source data to
turn on and off the transmitter at the same rate the information occurs, making a very
simple communication link.
• This is not a practical approach, however, since the receiver could easily mistake
random noise on the radio channel for a legitimate signal and thereby announce an
intrusion, or a fire, when none occurred.
• Such false alarms are highly undesirable, so the simple on/off information of the
transmitter must be coded to be sure it can’t be misinterpreted at the receiver.
 Baseband Data Format and Protocol
• This is the purpose of the encoder creates a group of bits, assembled into a frame, to
make sure the receiver will not mistake a false occurrence for a real one.
• Message frame.
•The example has four fields.
•The first field is a preamble which conditions the receiver for the transfer of information
and tells it when the message begins.
• The next field is an identifying address. This address is unique to the transmitter and its
purpose is to notify receiver from where, or from what unit, the message is coming.
• The data field follows, which may indicate what type of event is being signaled, followed,
in some protocols, by a parity bit or bits to allow the receiver to determine whether the
message was received correctly.

Message frame
Code Hopping
• Code hopping is a security technique commonly used in wireless communication
systems to prevent unauthorized access and eavesdropping.
• Code-hopping means that code contained in a transmitted message changes or 'hops'
with every new transmission.
• This method is variously called code rotation, code hopping, or rolling code addressing.
• Frequency Hopping:
• In a code hopping system, both the transmitter and receiver change their operating
frequency (channel) multiple times during communication. This hopping between
frequencies happens according to a predetermined hopping sequence known only to
the legitimate devices.
• Pseudorandom Sequence:
• The hopping sequence appears random but is actually generated using a pseudorandom
algorithm. This ensures that unauthorized parties cannot easily predict the sequence
and intercept the communication.
• Enhanced Security: By rapidly changing frequencies, the communication becomes more
resilient against interference, jamming, and eavesdropping attempts.
• Synchronization: Both the transmitter and receiver must stay synchronized to the
hopping sequence. If they fall out of sync, communication might be disrupted. Proper
synchronization mechanisms are critical to the effectiveness of the technique.
Applications:
 remote keyless entry systems for cars,
 garage door openers,
 wireless alarm systems, and
 secure wireless communication protocols.
Baseband coding
• The form of the information signal that is modulated onto the RF carrier we call here
baseband coding.
Digital systems
• Once we have a message frame, composed as we have shown by address and data
fields, the information must be formed into signal levels that can be effectively
transmitted, received, and decoded.
• This coding consists essentially of the way that zeros and ones are represented in the
signal sent to the modulator of the transmitter.
• These are the dominant criteria for choosing or judging a baseband code:
(a) Timing.
• The receiver must be able to take a data stream polluted by noise and recognize
transitions between each bit.
• The bit transitions must be independent of the message content—that is, they
must be identifiable even for long strings of zeros or ones.
(b) DC content.
• It is desirable that the average level of the message—that is, its DC level—
remains constant throughout the message frame, regardless of the content of
the message.
Baseband coding
(c) Power spectrum.
• Baseband coding systems have different frequency responses.
• A system with a narrow frequency response can be filtered more effectively to
reduce noise before detection.
(d) Inherent error detection.
• Codes that allow the receiver to recognize an error on a bit-by-bit basis have a
lower possibility of reporting a false alarm when error detecting bits are not
used.
(e) Probability of error.
• Codes differ in their ability to properly decode a signal, given a fixed transmitter
power.
• This quality can also be stated as having a lower probability of error for a given
signal-to-noise ratio.
(f) Polarity independence.
• There is sometimes an advantage in using a code that retains its characteristics
and decoding capabilities when inverted.
• Certain types of modulation and demodulation do not retain polarity
information. Phase modulation is an example.
Baseband coding
1. Non-return to zero (NRZ)
• This is the most familiar code, since it is used in digital circuitry and serial
wired short-distance communication links, like RS-232.
• However, it is rarely used directly for wireless communication.
• Strings of ones or zeros leave it without defined bit boundaries, and its DC level
is very dependent on the message content.
• There is no inherent error detection. If NRZ coding is used, an error detection
or correction field is imperative.
Baseband coding
2. Manchester code
• A primary advantage of this code is its relatively low probability of error
compared to other codes.
• It is the code used in Ethernet local area networks.
• It gives good timing information since there is always a transition in the middle
of a bit, which is decoded as zero if this is a positive transition and a one
otherwise.
• The Manchester code has a constant DC component
• Inverting the Manchester code turns zeros to ones and ones to zeros.
• The frequency response of the Manchester code has components twice as high
as NRZ code, so a low-pass filter in the receiver must have a cut-off frequency
twice as high as for NRZ code with the same bit rate.
Baseband coding

3. Biphase Mark
• This code is somewhat similar to the Manchester code, but bit identity is
determined by whether or not there is a transition in the middle of a bit.
• For biphase mark, a level transition in the middle of a bit (going in either
direction) signifies a one, and a lack of transition indicates zero.
• Biphase space is also used, where the space character has a level transition.
• There is always a transition at the bit boundaries, so timing content is good.
• A lack of this transition gives immediate notice of a bit error and the frame
should then be aborted.
•The biphase code has constant DC level, no matter what the message content
• As with the Manchester code, frequency content is twice as much as for the
NRZ code.
• The biphase mark or space code has the added advantage of being polarity
independent.
Baseband coding

4. Pulse width modulation

• As shown in the figure, a one has two timing durations and a zero has a pulse
width of one duration.
• The signal level inverts with each bit so timing information for synchronization is
good. There is a constant average DC level.
• Since the average pulse width varies with the message content, in contrast with
the other examples, the bit rate is not constant.
• This code has inherent error detection capability.
Analog baseband conditioning-Wireless microphone system.

• Wireless microphones and headsets are examples of short-range systems that must
maintain high audio quality over the vagaries of changing path lengths and indoor
environments, while having small size and low cost.
• To help them achieve this, they have a signal conditioning element in their baseband
path before modulation.
• Two features used to achieve high signal-to-noise ratio over a wide dynamic range are
pre-emphasis/de-emphasis and compression/expansion.
Analog baseband conditioning-Wireless microphone system.

• The transmitter audio signal is applied to a high-pass filter (pre-emphasis) which

increases the high frequency content of the signal.
• In the receiver, the detected audio goes through a complementary low-pass filter (de-
emphasis), restoring the signal to its original spectrum composition.
• However, in so doing, high frequency noise that entered the signal path after the
modulation process is filtered out by the receiver while the desired signal is returned to
its original quality.
• Compression of the transmitted signal raises the weak sounds and suppresses strong
sounds to make the modulation more efficient.
• Reversing the process in the receiver weakens annoying background noises while
restoring the signal to its original dynamic range.
Choice of RF frequency and bandwidth
Important factors to consider when determining the radio frequency of a short-range
system:
1. Telecommunication regulations
 When a device is to be marketed in several countries and regions of the world,
choose a frequency that can be used in the different regions, or at least frequencies
that don’t differ very much so that the basic design won’t be changed by changing
frequencies
 The UHF frequency bands are usually the choice for wireless alarm, medical, and
control systems. The bands that allow unlicensed operation don’t require rigid frequency
accuracy.
 Various components—SAWs and ICs—have been specially designed for these bands
and are available at low prices simple designs and low cost.
 Complete RF transmitter and receiver modules covering the most common UHF
frequencies, among them 315 MHz and 902 to 928 MHz (the United States and
Canada), and 433.92 MHz band and 868 to 870 MHz (European Community).
2. Antenna size
 Antenna size may be important in certain applications, and for a given type of antenna,
its size is proportional to wavelength, or inversely proportional to frequency.
 efficient built-in antennas are easier to achieve in small devices at short wavelengths.
Choice of RF frequency and bandwidth
3. Cost
directly proportional to increased frequency
4. Interference
 Natural and man-made background noise is higher on the lower frequencies.
 On the other hand, certain frequency bands available for short-range use may
be very congested with other users, such as the ISM bands.
 Where possible, it is advisable to choose a band set aside for a particular use,
such as the 868–870 MHz band available in Europe.
5. Propagation characteristics
 must be considered in choosing the operating frequency.
 High frequencies reflect easily from surfaces but penetrate insulated barriers
less readily than lower frequencies.
Modulation and its types
• Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal's properties, such as
amplitude, frequency, or phase, to carry information.
• Modulation is used to transmit data over a communication channel efficiently.
• Amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM), known from
commercial broadcasting
• Third class of modulation is phase modulation, not used in broadcasting, but its
digital counterpart is commonly used in high-end, high-data-rate digital wireless
communication
Analog modulation
Analog modulation
Digital modulation

• Whereas in ASK and FSK the amplitude and frequency are varied according to the
digital source data, in PSK it is the phase of the RF carrier that is varied.
• Digital AM is referred to as ASK—amplitude shift keying—and sometimes as OOK—
on/off keying.
• FSK is frequency shift keying, the parallel to FM.
Modulation for digital event communication

• For short-range digital communication we’re not interested in high fidelity, but
rather high sensitivity.
• Other factors for consideration are simplicity and cost of modulation and
demodulation.
Reasons for choosing one form of modulation or the other:
 An analysis of error rates versus bit energy to noise density shows that there is no
inherent advantage of one system, ASK or FSK, over the other.
• In low-cost security systems, ASK is the simplest and cheapest method to use.
• For this type of modulation we must just turn on and turn off the radio frequency
output in accordance with the digital modulating signal.
• Detection in the receiver is also simple.
•If we take advantage of the maximum allowed peak power, FSK is the proper choice, since
for a given peak power, the average power of the ASK transmitter will always be less.
•Based on analysis of the effect of different types of interferenceASK, which does not
completely shut off the carrier on a “0” bit, is marginally better than FSK.
Continuous Digital Communication
• common way to compare
performance of the different
systems is by curves of bit error
rate (BER) versus the signal-to-
noise ratio, expressed as energy
per bit divided by the noise
density
• ASK is easy to generate and
detect, its bit error rate
performance is essentially the
same as for FSK.
• Best type of modulation to use
from the point of view of lowest
bit error for a given signal-to-
noise ratio (E/No) is PSK.
• FSK is usually the modulation of
choice for many systems.
• FSK has slightly more
complexity than ASK, and
that’s probably why it isn’t
used in all short-range digital
Advanced Digital modulation
• Two leading demands of wireless communication
• higher data rates
• better utilization of the radio spectrum translates to higher speeds on narrower
bandwidths.
• At the same time, much of the radio equipment is portable and operated by
batteries. So what is needed is:
• high data transmission rates
• narrow bandwidth
• low error rates at low signal-to-noise ratios
• low power consumption
• Breakthroughs have occurred with the advancement of digital modulation and
coding systems.
• Most of the high-data-rate
QAM(Quadrature bandwidth-limited channels use multiphase PSK or
Amplitude Modulation)
QAM.

• The diagram shown below is the basis of what is called vector modulation, IQ
modulation, or quadrature modulation. “I” stands for “in phase” and “Q” stands
for “quadrature.”
• The basis for quadrature modulation is the fact that two independent data streams
are simultaneously modulated on a carrier wave of a given frequency.
• This is possible if each data stream modulates coherent carriers whose phases are
https://youtu.be/IbUflaeJcU8?si=gPOeXcveHpkdYxue
90 degrees apart.
Advanced Digital modulation-QAM
• Each of these carriers is created from the same source by passing one of them through a
90-degree phase shifter.
• The symbol encoder block is a serial to parallel converter and symbol mapper.
• It takes n data bits and for each of the possible 2^n binary values of the symbol, it sends
in-phase “I” and quadrature “Q” levels to the modulators whose outputs are summed to
give a distinctive magnitude and phase to the symbol RF output.
• The pulse shaper filters smooth the transitions between symbols to restrain the
bandwidth.
Advanced Digital modulation-QAM

• The receiver, by reversing the process used in the transmitter can reproduce the bit
sequence of the transmitted symbol.
• Down conversion mixers switched by quadrature versions of the local oscillator output
produce in-phase and quadrature baseband signals after lowpass filtering.
• The symbol decoder performs the opposite function of the transmitter symbol encoder
and outputs the binary data corresponding to the values of I and Q of the symbol.
Advanced Digital modulation-QAM
• The magnitude and phase of each possible state of a carrier symbol in response to the
modulation is shown on a vector or constellation diagram
• An even number of bits per symbol, (b = 4, 6, 8, …) are applied to the I and Q paths to
create a carrier signal with 2^b states of given amplitude and phase.
• For example, 4 bits per each carrier vector symbol creates 16 combinations of amplitude
levels and phase. This type of modulation is called QAM, and in this example, 16-QAM, 4
data bits are transmitted in the same time and bandwidth
• Common in digital communication, including Wi-Fi and digital television
Spread Spectrum
• Another aspect of digital modulation that is used in a number of short-range wireless
applications—spread-spectrum modulation
• Allowed the telecommunication authorities to permit higher transmitter powers because
spread-spectrum signals can coexist on the same frequency bands as other types of
authorized transmissions without causing undue interference or being unreasonably
interfered with.
• Fig. 4.19A shows the spread-spectrum
signal spread out over a bandwidth
much larger than the narrow-band
signals. spreading the transmitted
power over a wide frequency band
greatly reduces the signal power in a
narrow bandwidth and thus the
potential for interference.
• Fig. 4.19B shows how spread-spectrum
processing reduces interference from
adjacent signals. The despreading
process concentrates the total power
of the spread-spectrum signal into a
narrow-band high peak power signal,
whereas the potentially interfering
narrow-band signals are spread out so
that their power in the bandwidth of
the desired signal is relatively low.
Spread Spectrum
Advantages
• Allows permitting higher power for nonlicensed devices
• Reduces co-channel interference—good for congested ISM bands
• Reduces multipath interference
• Resists intentional and unintentional jamming
• Reduces the potential for eavesdropping
• Permits code division multiplexing of multiple users on a common channel.
Spread Spectrum
• The methods for spreading the bandwidth of the spread-spectrum transmission
are:
1. In frequency hopping spectrum FHSS, the RF carrier frequency is changed
relatively rapidly at a rate of the same order of magnitude as the bandwidth of
the source information (analog or digital), but not dependent on it in any way. At
least several tens of different frequencies are used, and they are changed
according to a pseudo-random pattern known also at the receiver.
2. The direct-sequence spread-spectrum DSSS signal is modulated by a pseudo-
random digital code sequence known to the receiver.
• The performance of all types of spread-spectrum signals is strongly related to a
property called process gain.
• It is this process gain that quantifies the degree of selection of the desired
signal over interfering narrow-band and other wide-band signals in the same
passband.
• Process gain is the difference in dB between the output S/N after
despreading and the input S/N to the receiver:
Spread Spectrum types- FHSS https://youtu.be/CkhA7s5GIGc?si=bMAMEVuiXCSeK63W
• FHSS can be divided into two classes—fast hopping and slow hopping.
• A fast hopping transmission changes frequency one or more times per data bit (or
symbol
if there are multiple data bits per symbol).
• In slow hopping, several bits are sent per hopping frequency. Slow hopping is used for
fast data rates. Frequency hopping as a function of time is shown in Fig. 4.20. The
spectrum of a frequency-hopping signal looks like Fig. 4.21.
Spread Spectrum types- FHSS

• Both transmitter and receiver local oscillator frequencies are controlled by frequency
synthesizers.
• The receiver must detect the beginning of a transmission and synchronize its
synthesizer to that of the transmitter.
• When the receiver knows the pseudo-random pattern of the transmitter, it can lock
onto the incoming signal and must then remain in synchronization by changing
frequencies at the same time as the transmitter.
• Once exact synchronization has been obtained, the IF frequency will be constant and
the signal can be demodulated.
Spread Spectrum types- DSSS https://youtu.be/-1mxYWvfVWQ?si=tsf6YLeZcXM46H4-

• A pseudo random spreading code modulates the Txer carrier frequency, which is then
modulated by data.
• The elements of this code are called chips.
• The frequency spectrum created is shown above.
• The required bandwidth = width of the major lobe= twice the chip rate.
• Due to the wide bandwidth, the signal-to- noise ratio at the receiver input is very low,
often below 0 dB.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• The Rxer multiplies the replica of the transmitter’s pseudo-random spreading code with
the Rxer LO and the result is mixed with the incoming signal.
• When the Txer and Rxer spreading codes are same and are inphase, a narrow band IF
signal results that can be demodulated in a conventional fashion.
Spread Spectrum types- DSSS

• Two stages to synchronize Txer and Rxer pseudo random codes---acquisition and tracking.
• Inorder to acquire a signal, Rxer multiplies the known expected code with incoming RF
signal ouput is random noise when signals other than desired signal exist in channel.
• When desired signal is present it must by synchronized precisely inphase with Rxer code
sequence to achieve a strong output.
• In synchronization, tracking, keeps the txed and rxed code bits aligned for complete
duration of message.
Relative advantages of FHSS and DSSS

• FHSS can be designed with less power • FHSS have high interference immunity
consumption than DSSS • DSSS have more flexibility
• DSSS provide higher data rate with less
redundancy
OFDM—orthogonal frequency division multiplex.

• Offers improved spectral efficiency, good performance in urban and indoor high
multipath environments, and relative simplicity
• Based on the use of mathematical Fourier transform manipulations, OFDM forms
the basis of diverse wideband communications technologies, among them:
• IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi)
• IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX)
• Long Term Evolution Cellular (LTE)
• Terrestrial Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB-T)
• Digital Audio Broadcast (DAB)
• Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
• Power Line Networking (HomePlug)
• OFDM is advantageous high bit rate communication in a multipath
Environment.
• Intersymbol interference, often a problem in indoor systems, is essentially
eliminated by posing a guard interval in front of each OFDM symbol.

https://youtu.be/KCHO7zlU25Q?si=WS0NNEwIkf9k6ve4
OFDM
• The OFDM spectrum is flat-topped, with transmission power distributed equally over the
bandwidth, and shows sharp attenuation outside of the passband.
• The DSSS spectrum, on the other hand, has a rounded main lobe with highest power
density around the carrier frequency and reduced power density approaching the
passband edges. It also has minor lobes which must be filtered out.

• In the transmitter, the high rate symbol stream is demultiplexed in a serial to parallel
converter (S-P) and the symbols in each of the low rate parallel streams are applied at the
start of each symbol time to the inverse fast Fourier transform block IFFT.
• The parallel output of the IFFT becomes a baseband time domain signal at the output of
the
parallel to serial converter block (P-S).
• The baseband symbol length is increased by the cyclic prefix (CP) and upconverted in a
OFDM

• In the receiver, the OFDM signal is down converted in the demodulator, and synchronized
to symbol and frame timing.
• The cyclic prefix is removed and after serial to parallel conversion (S-P), the time samples
within an OFDM period are transformed by the FFT block to frequency domain symbols.
• An equalizer compensates for the flat fading over the communication channel and
then a parallel to serial converter restores the original symbol stream.
RFID-transceiver, Design issues for RFID
• RFID devices are not communication devices but involve interrogated transponders.
• Instead of having two separate transmitter and receiver terminals, an RFID system consists
of a reader that sends a signal to a passive or active tag and then receives and interprets a
modified signal reflected or retransmitted back to it.
• One or more tags or smart cards are interrogated by the reader to obtain the ID of each and
the data are sent to a host application. Some types of tags/cards may be written to as well.
Other tag devices include sensors whose outputs are read to the host.

• Interrogators are
responsible for
remotely powering
the tags (in passive
and semi-passive
systems), establishing
the bidirectional data
flow between
themselves and the
tags, and performing
analog to digital as
well as digital to
analog signal
conversion.
https://youtu.be/qRimFDF7FR0
RFID-transceiver, Design issues for RFID

Applications:
• Aircraft identification.
A terrestrial terminal, radar for example, transmits a beam in the direction of an aircraft. A
transponder in the airborne vehicle responds by transmitting an identification code to the
initiating terminal, which can be used to mark a radar screen blip, and, in wartime, signify
friend or foe.
• Roadway toll collection. A signal from an overhead transmitter on a toll road activates a
transponder mounted on a vehicle windshield which transmits the car ID to a toll station
receiver for billing purposes.
• Inventory control. Tags on product cartons in a warehouse each reflect a signal to
a handheld reader identifying the contents of the box.
• Animal husbandry. Embedded tags in cows are read by RFID readers when the animals
come for milking for the purpose of acquiring statistics on the milk output of each
individual cow.

• The reader has a conventional transmitter and receiver.

• The tag itself is special for this class of applications.
• It may be passive, receiving its power for retransmission from the signal sent from the
reader, or it may have an active receiver and transmitter and embedded long-life
battery.
• RFID tag has no signal inputs or outputs, but just transmits a response of internal
information upon receipt of a trigger transmission.
RFID-transceiver, Design issues for RFID
• The tag may incorporate an external sensor element whose measurement values can be
read in a similar manner to the tag’s internal memory.
• A read-write tag has memory that can be modified by the reader.
Operation
• The reader transmits an interrogation signal, which is received by the tag.
• The tag may alter the incoming carrier signal in some unique manner and reflect it back,
or its transmitting circuit may be triggered to read its ID code residing in memory and to
transmit this code back to the receiver.
• Active tags have greater range than passive tags. If the tag is moving in relation to the
receiver, such as in the case of toll collection on a highway or parts moving on a conveyer
belt, the data transfer must take place fast enough to be complete before the tag is out
of range.
Design issues:
• Tag orientation is likely to be random, so tag and reader antennas must be designed to
give the required range for any orientation.
• Multiple tags within the transmission range can cause return message collisions. One
way to avoid this is by giving the tags random delay times for response, which may allow
several tags to be interrogated at once.
• Tag data must be coded to prevent misreading.