Mechatronic and

Measurement Systems
 Measurement Principles
• Measurement is the comparison between predefined standards and unknown magnitude .

Applications:
Measurement of system parameters
Control Operations
Experimental design studies
Testing of materials
Maintenance of standards and specifications
 Functional Elements of a Measurement System
A generalized 'Measurement System' consists of the following:
1. Basic Functional Elements
2. Auxiliary Functional Elements

Basic Functional Elements

Transducer Element that senses and converts the desired input to a more convenient and
practicable form to be handled by the measurement system.

Signal Conditioning Element for manipulating / processing the output of the transducer in a
suitable form.

Data Presentation Element for giving the information about the measured variable in the
quantitative form.

Auxiliary Functional Elements

Calibration Element to provide a built-in calibration facility.

External Power Element to facilitate the working of one or more of the elements.

Feedback Element to control the variation of the physical quantity that is being measured.

Microprocessor Element to facilitate the manipulation of data for the purpose of simplifying
Bourdon Pressure Gauge
 Classification of Instruments
(1) Deflection and Null Type Instruments

Deflection Type Instruments

In deflection type instruments, the physical effect produced by the measured quantity produces
an equivalent effect in the instrument which is directly related to the measured quantity.

Examples: Bourdan Gauge, LVDT, Spring Balance

 Deflection Type Instruments

Piezoelectric Thermo-Couple
Sensor

• Good Dynamic Response

• Interfere with the state of measured quantity and introduce a small error in
measurements.
 Null Type Instruments
A balancing device generates an equivalent opposing effect to nullify the
physical effect caused by the quantity to be measured.

• Poor Dynamic Response

• Do not interfere with the state of measured quantity and hence have higher
accuracy compared to deflection type instruments.
(2) Self-Generating and Power Operated Instruments
Self-Generating Instruments (Passive)
• Do not need external source of power.
• They derive the energy from the quantity to be measured.
 Power Operated Instruments (Active)
• Need external source of power for operation.
 (3) Analog and Digital Instruments
Analog Instruments
• Present the measured quantities in the form of continuous signals.
• Simple construction, cost less and are easy to repair and maintain.
 Digital Instruments
• Present the measured quantities in the form of digital values which are discrete.
• Higher noise immunity during signal transmission.
• Drawback: Unable to indicate a quantity which is a part of the step value of the
instrument.
 (4) Contacting and Non-Contacting Instruments
Contact Type Instruments
• Kept in contact with the measuring medium.
 Non-Contact Type Instruments

• Measure the desired quantity without being in contact with the measuring
medium.(Infrared thermometers)
Input-Output configuration of Measuring Instruments

•An instrument performs an operation on an input quantity(measurand) to provide an

output (measurement).
•Input is denoted by “ i ” and output is denoted by “ o “.
•According to performance of instrument it can be stated in terms of an operational
transfer function F.
The various inputs to a measurement system can be classified into three categories:
1. Desired Input:
• A quantity for which the instrument is specifically made to measure is called desired input.
• The desired input iD produces an output component according to an input-output relation symbolized by

FD . FD represents mathematical operation necessary to obtain output from input.

2. Interfering Input:
• A quantity to which the instrument is unintentionally sensitive.
• The interfering input iI would produce an output component according to input-output relation

symbolized by FI .
3. Modifying Input:
• A quantity that modifies input-output relationship for both desired and modified inputs is called
modifying input.
• The modifying input iM will cause change in FD and or FI .
• The output of measuring apparatus is instantaneous algebraic sum of output component due to desired,
interfering and modifying inputs.
For linear instrument, FD is constant number K
For non-linear, FD is function of input
For dynamic instrument, FD is differential
For scattered distribution, FD is statistical distribution function
Example:
Take an example of differential manometer.
• Manometer is used to measure pressure difference.
• Manometer consist of U tube filled with mercury and with its ends connected to two points between which pressure
difference is to be measured.
• In figure 1 P1 and pressure P2 are desired inputs and the difference is measured by scale h.
 • Suppose manometer is placed on wheel which is subjected to acceleration.
• Pressure differential gets created due to acceleration and scale indicates reading even though
pressures P1 and P2 at two ends are equal.
• Here the acceleration is an interfering input.
If there is temperature variation due to change of location of manometer, the manometer scale will
show different reading of pressure difference.
• Here temperature variation acts as modifying input.
• Here temperature variation affects desired input as well as interfering input.
 METHODS TO MINIMIZE INTERFERING AND MODIFYING
INPUTS
It is necessary to reduce effect of interfering and modifying inputs.
Various methods to accomplish this task are as follows:
1. Signal Filtering
2. Compensating by opposing inputs
3. Output Corrections
4. Inherent Insensitivity
5. High gain feedback
1. Method of Signal Filtering
 Filters are introduced into the instruments in the path of spurious inputs( interfering and modifying).
 The filters are designed so as they allows desired input signals.
 The filters can be introduced into measurement system at one of its three stages (input, intermediate,
and output stage), depends upon application.
2. Compensation by opposing inputs
 This method consists of intentionally introducing interfering/ modifying inputs to cancel bad effects
of unavoidable inputs.
Example:
If a bourdon tube is measuring pressure of an object, but because of ambient temperature there is
error in pressure reading.
To compensate this problem another bourdon tube is placed near measuring tube, it will sensitive only
ambient temperature.
This tube will measure pressure due to temperature only.
That pressure reading will be minus from the reading of first tube.
3. Method of Output Correction
The method involves in calculating corrections which may be added to or subtracted from the indicated
output so as to leave only that component which is associated with desired input.
Example
In strain gauge knowledge of temperature coefficient of resistance, temperature sensitivity of gauge and
operating temperature helps to obtain the correction to the output.
4. Method of Inherent insensitivity
Instrument designed so that they are only sensitive to desired inputs and insensitive to interfering and
modifying inputs.
Example
Temperature is interfering input for strain gauge. Thus, a material with low temperature resistance should
be chosen for strain gauge material for eg Invar.
5. Method of high gain feedback
Suppose we wish to measure voltage ei by applying it to the motor whose torque is applied to the spring

causing displacement xo.

xo=(KmoKsp)ei. (KMO and KSP are constants)

There will be modifying inputs acting on both motor as well as spring changing their values (K MO and KSP)

and lead to error in relationship ei and xo.

To correct this, a feedback device is added to the system.
• It measures xO and produces voltage eO.

• This voltage is subtracted from input voltage (ei) and

difference is applied to amplifier which drives the motor
and then spring produces displacement xO.

xo=ei KMO KSP KAM \1+KAM KMO KSP KFB

• If KAM is very large (high gain system) then KAM KMO KSP

KFB>>>>>1

xo=ei/KFB

• It indicates that the effect of variations in KAM KMO

KSP(as a result if modifying inputs iM1, iM2 and iM3) are

negligible
 Characteristics of measurement systems
• To choose the one most suited to a particular measurement application, we have to know the system
characteristics.

• The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into two groups, namely ‘static’ and
‘dynamic’ characteristics

• Static characteristics: the performance criteria for the measurement of quantities that remain
constant or vary only quite slowly.

• Dynamic characteristics: the relationship between the system input and output when the measured
quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.
Static characteristics
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are
slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called ‘static characteristics’.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Accuracy
ii) Precision
iii) Sensitivity
iv) Linearity
v) Reproducibility
vi) Repeatability
vii) Resolution
viii) Threshold
ix) Drift
x) Stability
xi) Tolerance
xii) Range or span
xiii) Reliability
,
Accuracy:
• It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured.
• The accuracy of an instrument is quantified by the difference of its readings and the one given by the ultimate
or primary standard.
• Accuracy depends on inherent limitations of instrument and shortcomings in measurement process.
Unit of accuracy:
1. Percentage of true value (% of T.V.) = (Measured value – True value) *100
True value
2. Percentage of Full Scale Deflection (% of fsd) = (Measured value – True value) *100
Maximum Scale value

Precision:
• Precision is defined as the ability of instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings within given accuracy.
• Precision describes an instrument’s degree of random variations in its output when measuring a constant
quantity.
• Precision depends upon repeatability.
Repeatability
Repeatability is defined as ability of instrument to reproduce a group of measurements of same measured
quantity, made by same observer, using same instrument, under same conditions.

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is
defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured.
Mathematically it is expressed as,

Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured.
It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
Linearity:
The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically & linearly.
The curve shows the actual calibration curve & idealized straight line.

% non-linearity= Deviation of output from idealized

Straight line Full scale reading

Reliability
Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately perform (as specified) for a period of time under specified
operating conditions. Some sensors are required for safety or product quality, and therefore, they should be very
reliable.
Drift:
It is defined as the variation of output for a given input caused due to change in sensitivity of the instrument due to
certain interfering inputs like temperature changes, component instabilities, etc.
• Chemical structural changes and changing mechanical stresses.
• It also can alter the accuracy of the instrument differently at the various amplitudes of the signal present.
Drift may be classified into three categories:
a) Zero drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue warming up of
electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
b) Sensitivity drift:If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is called
sensitivity drift.
c) Zonal drift: In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
Backlash
• It is defined as the maximum distance or angle through which any part of mechanical system may be
moved in one direction without causing motion of next part.
• Can be minimized if components are made to very close tolerances.
Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the
output for a given value of input, when this value is approached
from opposite directions ; i.e. from ascending order & then
descending order.
• Non coincidence of loading and unloading curves
• Causes are backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic
characteristics, frictional effects (mainly).
• Hysteresis can be eliminated by taking readings in both
direction and then taking its arithmetic mean.
Instrument characteristic with hysteresis.
Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum value below which no output
change can be detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
Example: A car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 km/h. This means that, if the vehicle starts from rest
and accelerates, no output reading is observed on the speedometer until the
speed reaches 15 km/h.

Dead Space:
Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which
there is no change in output value

Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout in its specified operating life.
Resolution:
It is the smallest change in the value that the instrument can detect. For example ,if a digital pressure gauge has a
resolution of 0.001 psi, it will be able to detect and display changes in pressure as small as 0.001 psi.

Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value which is called tolerance.
Example: Electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of perhaps 5%. One resistor chosen at random
from a batch having a nominal value 1000W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere between 950W
and 1050 W

Range or span:
The range of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure. Span is the distance between maximum value and the minimum value that the instrument is designed to
measure. Example: Range can be 10 psi to 20 psi, span of 30 psi.
 Dynamic characteristics
When dynamic or time-varying quantities are to be measured, it is necessary to find the dynamic response
characteristics of the instrument being used for mea­surement. The dynamic inputs to an instrument may be of
the following types:

1.Periodic input—Varying cyclically with time or repeating itself after a constant interval, viz. T as in Fig. 3.1.
2. Transient input—Varying non-cyclically with time. As shown in Fig. 3.2, the signal is of a
definite duration and becomes zero after a certain period of time.

3. Random input—Varying randomly with time, with no definite period and amplitude. This
may be continuous, but not cyclic as in Fig. 3.3.
 Dynamic characteristics
• For studying the dynamic characteristics of an instru­ment or a combination of instruments, it is necessary to
represent each instrument by its mathematical model, from which the governing relation between its input
and output is obtained
• Dynamic response of the measurement system is expressed in the form of a differential equation. For any
dynamic system, the order of the differential equation which describes the system is called the Order of the
System.
(i) Zero-order System: It has an ideal dynamic performance, because the output is proportional to the
input for all frequencies and there is no amplitude or phase distortion. A linear potentiometer is an
example of a zero-order element.
(ii) First-order System: A first-order instrument or system is characterized by a linear differential
equation. The temperature transducer is an example of first-order measuring devices, since this is
characterized by a single parameter, i.e., time constant, T.
(iii) Second-order System: This type of system is characterized by the second-order differential equation.
The example of the second-order system is the mass-spring system of the measurement of the force.
• The second-order system is characterized by the two parameters the natural frequency, fn or the angular
frequency, , and the damping ratio .
• In the second-order system, the natural frequency is the index of speed of response, whereas the damping
ratio is a measure of the system stability. The second-order instrument is more common than first-order
types.
 Errors in Measurements
• Error is the difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity such as displacement,
pressure, temperature etc.
• The aim of study of errors is to find out the ways to minimize them.
• Errors may be introduced from different sources.
• Errors are usually classified as follows:
1. Gross Errors,
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors.
1. Gross Errors:
• These errors are largely due to human errors in reading of instruments, incorrect adjustment and improper
application of instruments, and computational mistakes.
• Complete elimination of such errors is probably impossible. The common gross error is the improper use of
an instrument for measurement.
 • For example, a well calibrated voltmeter can give an error in reading when connected across a high
resistance circuit. The same voltmeter will give more accurate reading when connected in a low
resistance circuit. It means the voltmeter has a “loading effect” on the circuit, altering the characteristics
by the measurement process.
2. Systematic Errors:
• These errors are shortcomings of instruments, such as defective or worn parts, and effects of the environment
on the equipment.
• This type of error is usually divided into two different categories:
(i) Instrumental Errors,
(ii) Environmental Errors.
(i) Instrumental Errors:
• These errors are defined as shortcomings of the instrument.
• Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments due to their mechanical structure.
• For example, in the deflection type instrument friction in bearings of various moving components, irregular
spring tension, stretching of the spring or reduction in tension due to improper handling or overloading of
the instrument may cause incorrect readings, which will result in errors.
• Other instrumental errors may be due to calibration; improper zero setting, variation in the air gap, etc.
• Instrumental errors may be avoided by following methods:
(a) Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement;
(b) Applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error;
(c) Calibrating the instrument against a standard instrument.
(ii) Environmental Errors:
• These errors are due to external conditions surrounding the instruments which affect the measurements.
• The surrounding conditions may be the changes in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or of
magnetic or electrostatic fields.
• The change in ambient temperature at which the instrument is used causes a change in the elastic properties
of the spring in a moving-coil mechanism and so causes an error in the reading of the instrument.
• To reduce the effects of external conditions surrounding the instruments the corrective measures are to be
taken as follows:
(a) To provide air-conditioning,
(b) Certain components in the instrument should be completely closed i.e., hermetically sealed, and
(c) To provide magnetic and electrostatic shields.
Systematic errors can also be subdivided into:
(a) Static errors, and
(b) Dynamic errors.
• Static errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its
behaviour. A static error is introduced in a micrometer when excessive pressure is applied in twisting or
rotating the shaft.
• Dynamic errors caused by the instrument do not respond fast enough to follow the changes in a measured
variable.
3. Random Errors:
• These errors are those errors which are due to unknown causes and they occur even when all systematic errors
have been taken care of.
• This error cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or other known methods of control.
• Few random errors usually occur in well-designed experiments, but they become important in high-accuracy
work.
• For example, a voltmeter with accurately calibrated is being used in ideal environmental conditions to read
voltage of an electric circuitry system. It will be found that the readings vary slightly over the period of
observation. This variation cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or other known method of control
and it cannot be explained without minute investigation. The only way to offset these errors is by increasing the
number of readings and using statistical methods in order to obtain the best approximation of the true value of
the quantity under measurement.
 CALIBRATION
• Calibration is the quantitative comparison between a known standard and the output of the measuring
system measuring the same quantity.
• If the output-input response of the system is linear, then a single-point calibration is sufficient, wherein only a
single known standard value of the input is employed.
• If the system response is non-linear, then a set of known standard inputs to the measuring system are
employed for calibrating the corresponding outputs of the system.
• Calibration procedure is the process of checking the inferior instrument against a superior instrument of
known traceability certified by a reputed standards organisation/national laboratory.
• ‘traceability’ of a calibrating device refers to its certified accuracy when compared with superior standard of
highest possible accuracy.
• Calibration procedures can be classified as follows:
1. Primary calibration
• When a device/system is calibrated against primary standards, the procedure is termed primary calibration.
• After primary calibration, the device is employed as a secondary calibration device.
• The standard resistor or standard cell available commercially are examples of primary calibra­tion.

2. Secondary calibration
• When a secondary calibration device is used for further calibrating another device of lesser accuracy, then the
procedure is termed secondary calibration.
• Secondary calibration devices are very widely used in general laboratory practice as well as in the industry
because they are practical calibration sources.
• For example, standard cell may be used for calibrating a voltmeter or an ammeter with suitable circuitry.

3. Direct calibration with known input source

• Direct calibration with a known input source is in general of the same order of accuracy as primary calibration.
• Devices that are calibrated di­rectly are also used as secondary calibration devices.
• For example, a turbine flow meter may be directly calibrated by using the primary measurements such as
weighing a certain amount of water in a tank and recording the time taken for this quantity of water to flow
through the meter. Subsequently, this flow meter may be used for secondary calibration of other flow metering
devices such as an orificemeter or a venturimeter.

4. Indirect calibration
• Indirect calibration is based on the equivalence of two different devices that can be employed for measuring a
certain physical quantity. This can be illustrated by a suitable example, say a turbine flow meter. The requirement
of dynamic similarity between two geometrically similar flow meters is obtained through the maintenance of
equal Reynold’s number, i.e. = .
• where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the ‘standard’ and the meter to be calibrated, respectively. For such a
condition, the discharge coefficients of the two meters are directly comparable
Advantage:
• It is possible to carry out indirect calibration, i.e. to predict the performance of one meter on the basis of an
experimental study of another.
• This way, a small meter may be employed to determine the discharge coefficient of large meters.
• Also, the discharge coefficient of the meter intended for gas may be determined by carrying out test runs on a
liquid provided that similarity through Reynold’s numbers is maintained.

5. Routine calibration
• Routine calibration is the procedure of periodically checking the accuracy and proper functioning of an
instrument with standards that are known to be accurately reproducible.
• The entire procedure is normally laid down for making various adjustments, checking the scale reading, etc.
which conforms to the accepted norms/standards.
Displacement measuring devices
 Potentiometer transducer
• The potentiometer is a resistance type transducer for
measuring displacement. It converts mechanical
displacement into electrical output.
• It consists of a resistance element with a movable contact as
shown in Figure. A voltage Vs is applied across the two ends
A and B of the resistance element and an output voltage V 0 is
measured between the point of contact C of the sliding
element and the end of the resistance element A.
• The body whose motion is being measured is connected to
the sliding element of the potentiometer, so that
translational motion of the body causes a motion of equal
magnitude of the slider along the resistance element and a
corresponding change in the output voltage V0.
 Capacitive transducer

• Capacitive transducer is a passive transducer that works on the

principle of variable capacitance.
• It contains two conductive plates separated by a dielectric
medium, with the capacitance varying due to changes in the plate
area, distance, or dielectric properties. This makes it highly
suitable for measuring displacements, pressures, forces, and fluid
levels.
• A capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates
separated by a dielectric medium, which can be air, a material,
gas, or liquid. Unlike a normal capacitor where the distance
between the plates is fixed, the distance in a capacitive transducer
varies.
• The capacitive transducer uses the principle of variable capacitance to convert mechanical movement into an electrical
signal. The input quantity causes a change in capacitance, which is directly measured by the transducer.
• Capacitive transducers can measure both static and dynamic changes. Displacement is measured directly by connecting
the measurable devices to the movable plate of the capacitor. They operate in both contacting and non-contacting
modes.
Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer
The working principle revolves around the basic formula for capacitance C=εA/d, Any factor
affecting these parameters causes the capacitance to change.
The equations below express the capacitance between the plates of a capacitor:
C=εA/d, C=εrε0A/d
Where, A is the overlapping area of plates in m2
•d is the distance between two plates in meter
•ε is the permittivity of the medium in F/m
•εr is the relative permittivity
•ε0 is the permittivity of free space
 Strain gauge
• A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force.
• It is one of the significant sensors used in the geotechnical field to measure the amount of strain on any structure
(Dams, Buildings, Nuclear Plants, Tunnels, etc.).
• The resistance of a strain gauge varies with applied force and, it converts parameters such as force, tempressure,
tension, weight, etc. into a change in resistance that can be measured.
• Whenever an external force is applied to an object, it tends to change its shape and size thereby, altering its
resistance.
• The stress is the internal resisting capacity of an object while a strain is the amount of deformation experienced by it.
• Resistance is directly dependent on the length and the cross-sectional area of the conductor given by:
R= ρL/A.
R = Resistance
L = Length
A = Cross-Sectional Area
Ρ = Resistivity of the material
 Gauge factor

• The gauge factor is defined as the unit change in resistance per unit change in length.
• It is denoted as Ks. It is also called sensitivity of the strain gauge.
• Gauge factor Ks =∆R/R / ∆𝐿/𝐿
Where ∆R= Corresponding change in resistance R
∆L= Change in length per unit length.
The resistance of the wire of strain gauge R is given by:
R = ρ.L/A
GF=1+2v+. V=poisons ratio
E=∆𝐿/𝐿
note
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit that is used for measuring the
instantaneous change in the instant resistance.
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 or
𝑅1𝑋𝑅3 = 𝑅2𝑋𝑅4
When applying any voltage to input, the output of the system may be zero “0”.
In this way, the bridge is in balance. When the any resistance changes, the
output will be different than zero.
A strain gauge connects to the circuit in Figure 7. When strain gauge loads and
the resistance changes, the voltage is obtained at the output of the bridge.
Two strain gauged connect to the circuit in Figure 8. When strain
gauges load and the resistances change, the voltage is obtained at
the output of the bridge.

or
Strain gauges are basically available into four types of:
1. Wire wounded strain gauges
2. Foil type strain gauge
3. Semiconductor strain gauges
4. Capacitive strain gauges
1. Wire wounded strain gauges
• In an electrical resistance strain gauge, the device consists of a thin wire placed on a flexible paper tissue and is
attached to a variety of materials to measure the strain of the material. This change in resistance is proportional to the
strain and is measured using a Wheatstone bridge.
There are two main classes of wire wound strain gauges:
➢ Bonded strain gauge
➢ Unbonded strain gauge
Bonded strain gauge
• These gauges are directly bonded (that is pasted) on the surface of the structure
under study.
• Along with the construction of transducers, a bonded metal wire strain gauge is
used for stress analysis.
• A resistance wire strain gauge has a wire of diameter 0.25mm or less.
• The grid of fine resistance wire is cemented to carrier. It can be a thin sheet of
paper, Bakelite or a sheet of Teflon. To prevent the wire from any mechanical
damage, it is covered on top with a thin sheet of material. The spreading of wire
allows us to have a uniform distribution of stress over the grid. The carrier is
bonded with an adhesive material. Due to this, a good transfer of strain from
carrier to a grid of wires is achieved.
• Typically, the resistance of strain gauges is 120Ω, 350Ω, 1000Ω. But a high
resistance value results in lower sensitivity. Thus, to have higher sensitivity,
higher bridge voltages have to be used.
Unbonded strain gauge
• It is a type of gauge in which a wire is stretched in an insulating medium in between two points. The insulating
medium can be air.
• The wire can be made of alloys such as copper-nickel, chrome nickel, nickel-iron having a diameter of about 0.003
mm.
• The gauge factor for this category of the strain gauge is about 2 to 4 and capable to withstand a force of 2MN.
Operation of Unbonded strain gauges
• When a force is applied on the structure under study (frames P & Q),
frames P moves relative to frame Q, and due to this strain gauge will
change in length and cross section. That is, the strain gauge is strained.
• This strain changes the resistance of the strain gauge and this change
in resistance of the strain gauge is measured using a wheat stone
bridge.
• This change in resistance when calibrated becomes a measure of the
applied force and change in dimensions of the structure under study.
Foil Strain Gauge
• This is an extension of the resistance wire strain gauge. Foil type Strain Gauge have similar characteristics to wire
strain gauges. Also, their gauge factors are typically the same.
• The strain is sensed with the help of a metal foil. The metals and alloys used for the foil and wire are nichrome,
constantan (Ni + Cu), isoelastic (Ni + Cr + Mo), nickel and platinum.
• Foil gauges have a much greater dissipation capacity than wire wound gauges, on account of their larger surface
area for the same volume. Also, the large surface area of foil gauges leads to better bonding.
• For this reason, they can be used for a higher operating temperature range.
• The advantage of foil type Strain Gauge is that they can be fabricated on a large scale, and in any shape.
• The resistance film formed is typically 0.2 mm thick. The resistance value of commercially available foil gauges is
between 50 and 1000 Ω the resistance films are vacuum coated with ceramic film and deposited on a plastic
backing for insulation.
Construction
• Foil gauge consists of first bonding a layer of strain sensitive material to a thin sheet of paper or bakelite.
• The portion of the metal to be used as the wire element is covered with appropriate masking material, and an
etching solution is applied to the unit.
• The solution removes that portion of the metal which is not masked, leaving the desired grid structure intact.
• This method of construction enables etched foil strain gauges to be made thinner than comparable wire units, this
characteristics, together with a greater degree of flexibility, allows the Etched foil gauge to be mounted in more
remote and restricted places and on a wide range of curved surfaces.
Semiconductor Strain Gauge
• Semiconductor strain gauges are used when a very high gauge factor is required. They have a gauge factor 50 times as
high as wire strain gauges.
• Their resistance changes with change in applied strain to have a high
sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is desirable.
• A high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance, which
can be measured with a good degree of accuracy.
• Semiconductor strain gauges depend for their action upon the piezo resistive
effect, i.e. change in value of the resistance due to change in resistivity.
• Semiconductor materials such as germanium and silicon are used as resistive materials.
• A typical strain gauge consists of a strain material and leads that are placed in a protective box, Semiconductor wafer
or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05 mm are used. They are bonded on suitable insulating substrates, such as
Teflon. Gold, leads are generally used for making contacts.
• Simple temperature compensation methods can be applied to semiconductor strain gauges, so that small values of
strain, that is micro strains(0.1-500 micro strain), can also be measured.
Capacitive strain gauges
• A capacitive strain gauge based on the principle of variation of capacitance with variation of distance between
electrodes.
• The electrodes are flexible metal strips of about 0.1 mm thickness.
• The strain to be measured is applied to the top plate.
• These change the distance between the curved electrodes resulting in changes of capacitance.
• The strain capacitance relationship in general not linear but variations in dimensions and shape allow gauge
characteristics to be chosen so as to match the range of capacitance to be measured with good degree of
accuracy.
 Piezoelectric transducers
• A type of transducer that convert mechanical energy into electrical voltage
when pressed or strained. This voltage directly corresponds to the amount
of force/pressure applied.
• The electric voltage produced by a piezoelectric transducer can be easily
measured by the voltage measuring instruments.
• The device is manufactured from a crystal, which can be either a natural
material such as quartz or a synthetic material such as lithium sulphate.
• The crystal is mechanically stiff (i.e. a large force is required to compress it),
and consequently piezoelectric transducers can only be used to measure the
displacement of mechanical systems that are stiff enough themselves to be
unaffected by the stiffness of the crystal.
• When the crystal is compressed, a charge is generated on the surface that is
measured as the output voltage.
 Fiber Optics Displacement Transducer
• It measures displacement based on intensity of light.
• It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source
and a bundle of receiving fibers coupled to the detector.
• The axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect to
the moving target can be adjusted to increase the sensitivity of the
sensor.
• Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and
is made to fall on the moving target.
• The light reflected from the target is made to pass through the
receiving fiber and the same is detected by the detector.
• Based on the intensity of the light received, the displacement of the
target can be measured, (i.e.) if the received intensity is more than we
can say that the target is moving towards the sensor and if the intensity
is less, we can say that the target is moving away from the sensor.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• LVDT converts the Linear motion into an electrical signal using an inductive transducer.
• It consists of one primary winding(P) and two secondary windings (S1 & S2). The primary winding is at the center
and the secondary windings are present on both sides of the primary winding at an equal distance from the center.
Both the secondary windings have an equal no. of turns and they are linked with each other in series opposition,
i.e. they are wounded in opposite directions, but are connected in series with each other. The entire coil assembly
remains stationary during distance measurement. The moving part of the LVDT is an arm made of magnetic
material.
Working Principle of LVDT
• The working of LVDT is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states that “the electrical
power in the network induction circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux in the circuit.”
• As the primary winding of LVDT is connected to the AC power supply, The alternating magnetic field is produced
in the primary winding, which results in the induced EMF of secondary windings.
• Induced voltages in the secondary windings S1 & S2 are E1 & E2 respectively. The rate of change of magnetic
flux i.e. dΦ/dt is directly proportional to the magnitude of induced EMF i.e E1 and E2. The total output voltage Eo
in the circuit is given by Eo = E1-E2
• Since depending on the position of the core the flux varies, the object whose translational displacement is to be
measured is physically attached to the central iron core of the transformer, so that all motions of the body are
transferred to the core.
• The output of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an AC voltage that is proportional to the
displacement or position of its core.
Force
Measurement
Balance
• A simple lever system, shown in Fig. 9.1, called a balance, has long been used
as a force measuring device.
• To measure the unknown force F at a distance L from the pivot, a mass m at a
distance / from the pivot is used.
• The system is in equilibrium when FL = mgl
• With the knowledge of the other parameters, viz. lengths L and /, mass m and
gravitational constant g, the force F can be calculated.
Hydraulic Load Cell
• In this type of device (Fig. 9.2), hydraulic pressure is used to indicate the force
F, applied to a diaphragm or some other type of force transmitting element.
• When a force F is applied, pressure is developed in the fluid which is
normally an oil.
• This can be measured by a pressure indicating device like a Bourdon gauge.
• Such a device can be used up to very large forces, of the order of millions of
Newtons.
Pneumatic Load Cell
• In this type of load cell, shown in Fig. 9.3, air is supplied under pressure to a chamber having a diaphragm at one end and a
nozzle (Nozzle flapper) at the other.
• Application of force to the diaphragm deforms it and changes the gap between the extension of the diaphragm and the nozzle,
thus changing the pressure in the chamber.
• If the force F increases, the gap reduces and this increases pressure P2 in the chamber.
• This increase in pressure produces a force tending to return the diaphragm to its original position.
• For any force F, the system attains equilibrium and pressure P2 gives an indication of the force F.
• This type of load cell is used up to 20 kN.
 Nozzle Flapper
• The nozzle flapper is a displacement transducer that translates displacements into a
pressure change.
• A secondary pressure-measuring device is therefore required within the
instrument. The general form of a nozzle flapper is shown schematically in Figure
19.7.
• Fluid at a known supply pressure, Ps, flows through a fixed restriction and then
through a variable restriction formed by the gap, x, between the end of the main
vessel and the flapper plate.
• The body whose displacement is being measured is connected physically to the
flapper plate. The output measurement of the instrument is the pressure Po in the
chamber shown in Figure 19.7, and this is almost proportional to x over a limited
range of movement of the flapper plate.
• Air is very commonly used as the working fluid and this gives the instrument a time constant of about 0.1 seconds.
• The instrument has extremely high sensitivity but its range of measurement is quite small.
• One very common application of nozzle flappers is measuring the displacements within a load cell, which are typically very small.
 Elastic Force Devices
• These devices measure both static and dynamic forces.
• In such devices, the force applied to the elastic member results in a displacement or strain
in the elastic member, which is sensed by mechanical or electromechanical means.
• The elastic members may be in the form of rings, diaphragms, strips, cylinders, etc.
Relations between strain and stiffness for some of the members are given here.
1. Axially Loaded Elastic Member
• For the member shown in Fig. 9.4, strain e in axial direction and stiffness k in the
same direction are

• where P is the force, E the Young’s modulus, A the area of cross-section and L the
length of member.
2. Cantilever-type Elastic Member
• Strain e at the root of the cantilever is given by

• where b and t are the width and thickness of the cantilever, respectively.
3. Ring-type Elastic Member
• Due to the forces V and H, strain e at = 90° is given by

• It is seen from Eqs. (9.6) and (9.7) that at = 90°, the strain is due to force V only and at = 39.6°, the strain is due
to force H only. Thus, the two components can be separately measured. Expressions for deflections in the
directions of V and H are:

• In order to prevent rolling of the ring due to force H, an octagonal type ring as shown in
Fig. 9.7 is used. In such a case, the strain at = 90° is only due to force V while that at «
50° is only due to force H.
Thank
You