Math-408 [3(3-0)]

Quantitative
Reasoning-I
Muhammad
Usman

M. Usman, Department of 1
Math & Stat
Number system and basic
arithmetic
operations

M. Usman, Department of 2
Math & Stat
Number
Systems
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

•Define the decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal

numbering systems and be able to convert from one

numbering or coding system to another
•Define the terms bit, byte, word, least significant bit
(LSB), and most significant bit (MSB) as they apply to
binary memory locations
• Add, subtract, multiply, and divide binary number

M. Usman, Department of 3
Math & Stat
Decimal
System
Knowledge of different number systems and digital codes is quite useful
when working with almost any type of digital computer. This is true because
a basic requirement of these devices is to represent, store, and operate on
numbers. In general, computer work on binary numbers in one form or
another; these are used to represent various codes or quantities.
The decimal system, which is most common to us, has a base of 10. The
radix or base of a
number system determines the total number of different symbols or digits
used by that system. For instance, in the decimal system, 10 unique
numbers or digits—i.e., the digits 0 through 9—are used: the total number
of symbols is the same as the base, and the symbol with the largest value
is 1 less than the base.
M. Usman, Department of 4
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The value of a decimal number depends on the digits that make up the number
and the place value of each digit. A place (weight) value is assigned to each
position that a digit would hold from right to left. In the decimal system the first
position, starting from the rightmost position, is 0; the second is 1; the third is
2; and so on up to the last position. The weighted value of each position
can be expressed as the base (10 in this case) raised to the power of the
position. For the decimal system then, the position weights are 1, 10, 100,
1000, and so on. Figure 6.1 illustrates how the value of a decimal number can
be calculated by multiplying each digit
nd summing the by the weight of its position a
results.

M. Usman, Department of 5
Math & Stat
Binary
System
The binary system uses the number 2 as the base. The only allowable digits are
0 and 1. With digital circuits it is easy to distinguish between two voltage levels
(i.e., +5 V and 0 V), which can be related to the binary digits 1 and 0 (Figure 6.2).
Therefore, the binary system can be applied quite easily to computer systems.
Since the binary system uses only two digits, each position of a binary
number
tocan
the go through only
immediate left two changes, and then a 1 is carried
position.

M. Usman, Department of 6
Math & Stat
Table 6.1 shows a comparison among four common number systems: decimal
(base 10), octal (base 8), hexadecimal (base 16), and binary (base 2). Note that
all numbering systems start at
zero
. The decimal equivalent of a binary
number can be determined in a
manner similar to that used for a
decimal number. This time the
weighted values of the positions
are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and so on.
The weighted value, instead of
being 10 raised to the power of the
position, is 2 raised to the power of
the position.

M. Usman, Department of 7
Math & Stat
Figure 6.3 illustrates how the binary number 10101101 is converted
to its decimal equivalent: 173.
Each digit of a binary number is
known as a bit. In a
processor-memory element consists of
hundreds or thousands of locations. These
locations, or registers, are referred to as
words. Each word is capable of storing
data in the form of binary digits, or bits.
Bits can also be grouped within a
word into
bytes.
A group of 8 bits is a byte, and a group
of 2 or more bytes is a word.Figure 6.4
illustrates a 16- bit word made up of 2
bytes. The least significant bit (LSB) is
the digit that represents the smallest
value, and the most significant bit (MSB)
is theOFF)
0 (or digit that represents the largest
To convert a decimal number to its binary equivalent, we must perform a series
of divisions by
2. Figure 5.5 illustrates the conversion of the decimal number 47 to binary. We
start by dividing
the decimal number by 2.

If there is a remainder, it is
placed in the LSB of the binary
number. If there is no remainder,
a 0 is placed in the LSB. The
result of the division is brought
down and the process is
repeated until the result of
successive divisions has been
M. Usman, Department of Math 9
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Octa
Numbers
To express the number in the binary system requires many more
digits than in the decimal system. Too many binary digits can
become cumbersome to read or write. To solve this problem, other
related numbering systems are used. The octal numbering system, a
base 8 system, is used because 8 data bits make up a byte of
information that can be addressed. Octal is a convenient means of
handling large binary numbers

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As shown in Table 6-4, one octal digit can be used to express three binary digits.
As in all other numbering systems, each digit in an octal number has a
weighted decimal value according to its position. Figure 6.6 illustrates how
the octal number 462 is converted to its decimal
equivalent:
306.

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Octal converts easily to binary equivalents. For example, the octal number 462 is
converted to its binary equivalent by assembling the 3-bit groups, as illustrated in
Figure 6.7.

https://www.rapidtables.com/convert/number/octal-to-bina
ry.html
M. Usman, Department of Math 16
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 6.5 Hexadecimal
System
The hexadecimal (hex) numbering system is used in programmable controllers
because a word of data consists of 16 data bits, or two 8-bit bytes. The
hexadecimal system is a base 16 system, with A to F used to represent decimal
numbers 10 to 15 (Table 6.5). The hexadecimal numbering system allows the
status of a large number of binary bits to be represented in a small space, such
as on a computer screen.

The techniques used when converting hexadecimal to decimal and

decimal to hexadecimal are the same as those used for binary and
octal. To convert a
hexadecimal number to its decimal equivalent, the hexadecimal digits in
the columns are multiplied M.by the
Usman, baseof Math
Department 16 weight, depending on digit
17
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 Figure 6.6 illustrates how the
conversion would be done for the
hex number 1B7

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Hexadecimal numbers can easily be converted to binary numbers. Conversion
is accomplished by writing the 4-bit binary equivalent of the hex digit for each
position, as illustrated
6. in Figure
7

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6.6 Binary Arithmetic
Mathematical operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. Binary addition follows rules similar to decimal addition. When adding
with binary numbers, there are only four conditions that can occur:

The first three conditions are easy because they are like adding decimals, but
the last condition is slightly different. In decimal, 1 + 1 = 2. In binary, a 2 is
written 10. Therefore, in binary, 1 + 1 = 0, with a carry of 1 to the next most
significant place value. When adding larger binary numbers, the resulting
1s
theare carried into higher-order
following columns, as shown in
M. Usman, Department of Math 2
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 In arithmetic functions, the initial numeric
quantities that are to be
combined by subtraction are the
minuend
and The result of the
subtraction
subtrahend.
process is ference,
represented as:
called the dif

To subtract from larger binary numbers,

subtract column by column, borrowing from
the adjacent column when necessary.
Remember that when borrowing from the
adjacent column, there are now two digits,
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 Binary numbers can also be negative. The
procedure for this calculation is identical
to that of decimal numbers because the
smaller value is subtracted from the
larger value and a negative sign is placed
in front of the result.
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 There are other methods available for doing
subtraction: 1’s
complement
2’s
complement

The procedure for subtracting numbers using the 1’s

complement is
as follows: he number (end-around
Step 1 Change the subtrahend to 1’scarry)
complement.
Step 2 Add the two numbers.
Step 3 Remove the last carry and add it to t
When there is a carry at the end of the
result, the result is positive. M. Usman, Department of Math 23
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 For subtraction using the 2’s
complement, the 2’s complement is
added instead of subtracting the
numbers. In the result, if the carry
is a 1, then the result is
positive; if the carry is a 0, then
the result is negative and
a minus
requires
sign.

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REVIEW
ǪUESTIONS
1.Convert each of the following 2.Convert each of the following
binary numbers to decimal numbers to
decimal numbers: binary numbers:
a. 10 a.7
b. 100 b.19
c. 111 c. 28
d. 1011 d. 46
e. 1100 e.57
f. 10010 f. 86
g. 10101 g.94
h. 11111 h. 112
i. 11001101 i. 148
j. 1110001 j. 230

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 3.Convert each of the following octal 4.Convert each of the following octal
numbers to numbers to
decimal numbers: binary numbers:
a. 36 a. 74
b. 104 b. 130
c. 120 c. 250
d. 216 d. 1510
e. 360 e. 2551
f. 1516 f. 2634
5.Convert each of the following 6.Convert each of the following
hexadecimal hexadecimal
numbers to decimal numbers: numbers to binary numbers:
a.5A a.4C
b.C7 b.E8
c. 9B5 c. 6D2
d. 1A6 d. 31B

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7. Add the following binary 10. Express the decimal number 18 in
each of the following number codes:
numbers: a. 110 + 111 a.Binary
b. 101 + 011 b.Octal
c. Hexadecimal
c. 1100 + 1011
8.Subtract the following binary numbers:
a. 1101 − 101
b. 1001 − 110
c. 10111 − 10010

9.Convert each piece of binary

information to the appropriate
hexadecimal code
a. 0001 1111
b. 0010 0101
d. 0011 1110
c. 0100 M. Usman, Department of Math 2
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Units and their
conversions

M. Usman, Department of Math 28

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Metric units of
measurement
• Length – a measure of distance
• Millimetre - mm
• Centimetre - cm
• Metre - m
• Kilometre - km
• Mass – linked to weight
• Gram - g
• Kilogram - kg
• Tonne - t
• Capacity – the amount of liquid a 3D shape

• Millilitre - 𝑚𝑙
will hold
• Centilitre - 𝑐𝑙
• Litre - 𝑙
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1 Write down which metric unit of length you would use
. to measure each of these items:
a) d) Width m
Length of a bedroom m
b) Length
M of a river pen nib
Height of a mountain Km
Km e)
c) Length of a needle Distance from Leeds to
2. Which metric unit would youYork
use km
to weigh each
Mm f)
item listed below?
a) Man k c) Delivery t
g van
b) Lette
r g
3. Which metric unit would you use to measure the
capacity of each container listed below?
a) Large bottle of pop cl c) Bottle of
m
shampoo ml M. Usman,
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Department of Math
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30
Metric
conversions
 10mm = 1cm
 100cm = 1m
 1000m = 1km
 1000g = 1kg
 1000kg = 1
tonne
 1000ml = 1
litre
 100cl = 1 litre
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Converting between
units
X X X

c 10 mm 100 c 1000
m
km
m ÷ m ÷ m ÷
10 100
1000

X X

k 1000 g l 1000
m
g ÷
1000
÷
1000
l

M. Usman, Department of Math 32

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Exampl
es
• 20mm =
cm
• 450mm = m
• 0.5cm =
mm
• 6000g =
kg
• 2500kg = t
• 400cm = m
• 4000m =
km
• 4.5kg = g
M. Usman, Department of Math 33
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More
exercises … 4000ml
1) 5.9m = 590c 11)4 litres = ….ml
0.509k
….cm 2) m 12)509g = ….kg g
43mm = ….cm 4.3c 13)63 litres =
63000
3) 2.4kg = ….g m ….ml ml
4) 7.4 litres = 2400 14)1400ml = …. 1.4l
….ml g Litres 3500m
5) 9.5kg = 7400 15)3.5km = ….m 2.5t
….g ml 16)2500kg = ….t
30cm
6) 70cm = 9500g
17)0.3m = ….cm
3700m
….m 18)3.7m = ….mm
0.7m m
7) 300mm = 19)5.02kg = ….g
0.3m 5020g
….m 20)10.3cm
Show any calculations that you do to work out =
0.6l M. Usman, Department of Math 103cm
8)the
600ml =
answer & Stat ….mm 34
What is conversion of
units?
•The conversion of units allows unit conversion to take
place between metric and imperial units of
measurement for units of length, area and volume,
and between seconds, minutes and hours.
•The metric system of units of measurement is based on
powers of 10. Prefixes such as kilo and milli are used to
indicate which power of 10 is involved.
• 1 km=1000 m
• 1 m=100 cm
• 1 m=1000 mm
• 1 cm=10 mm

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What is conversion of
units?
• The imperial system is an older system of measurements,
but some are still used in everyday life. e.g.
• 1 foot = 12 inches
• 3 feet = 1 yard
• 1760 yards = 1 mile
• Time uses a sexagesimal system based on the number 60
• There are 60 seconds in 1 minutes.
• There are 60 minutes in 1 hour.
• The SI (the international system of units) unit for time is the
second

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 • If we go from inches to centimetres we multiply by
Inches  the
conversion factor.
centimeters • If we go from centimetres to inches we divide
by the conversion factor.

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Currency
conversion
• The skills for the conversion of units can also be applied to
currency conversion. Different countries use different
currencies. How currencies are linked are known as the
exchange rate. E.g.
• The exchange rate is: $1 = PKR.277.70
• Work out how many American dollars is RS. 80,000.

M. Usman, Department of Math 38

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Units of
length
•The conversion factor is a
number we can use to
change one set of units to
another, by multiplying or
dividing. We can convert
units of lengths by
remembering the most
common metric unit
conversions

Ex.1: Can you convert 400cm into

M. Usman, Department of Math 39
meters?????? & Stat
Units of
time
• We can convert units of
time by remembering the
most common unit
conversions:

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Units of
area

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Units of
volume

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Rates, Ratios
Proportions and
Percentages

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 Ratios,
Rates and

Proportions

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Cross
products

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Exampl
e

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Exampl
es
• In a school, the ratio of boys to girls is 3:2. There are 312
boys. How many girls are there?
Ans: 208 girls

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Rate -
example
• A car travels 150 kilometers in 3
hours. The speed (rate) is:

Rate = Distance / Time = 150 km /

3 hours = 50 km/hour

This means the car is traveling at

a rate of 50 kilometers per hour.

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Proportion - example

• If 3 apples cost $6, how

much would 5 apples
cost at the same rate?

•We can set up the

proportion: So, the cost
of 5 apples is $10.
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Exercis
es
Ratio Exercise:
• A recipe calls for 2 cups of sugar and 3 cups of flour to make a batch of
cookies. You
want to make the cookies with 6 cups of flour. How many cups of sugar
will you need to maintain the same ratio of sugar to flour?
Rate Exercise:
• A car travels a distance of 240 kilometers in 4 hours. What is the
average speed (rate)
of the car in kilometers per hour?
Proportion
company claimsExercise:
that they can produce 20 units of product A in 12
• efficiency
A company
hours. Is ofmanufactures
the the second company
labor 15 units the
of same asA the
product first
using 10 company?
hours of If
labor.
difference
not, what inthe
is
• Another
efficiency?
We're making cookies, and the recipe calls for 1 cup of sugar for every 3
Whatof
cups we want to use 9 cups of flour: how much sugar
if flour.
do we need?
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 Types and Source
of Data
Measurement
Scales
Tabular and Graphical
Representation of data
M. Usman, Department of Math 58
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What is
Statistics?
Statistics is the art and science of extracting
information from data
Statistics
Dat Informatio
a n
Information:
Data: Raw facts Communicate
and figures, d concerning
especially some
numerical facts, particular
collected facts.
together for
information.
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Why study
statistics?
1. Data are everywhere
2. Statistical techniques are used to make many
decisions that affect our lives
3. No matter what your career, you will make
professional decisions that involve data. An
methods will help
understanding you make these decisions
of statistical
efectively
Statistics is a field that includes methods for planning
studies or surveys, gathering, organizing, summarizing,
displaying, and analyzing data. It helps us make
informed conclusions about a larger group (population)
Variation and
Uncertainty
•Statistics is the subject which deals with the
variability. No two objects in a universe are
exactly alike. If they were, there would have been
no statistical problem.

•It also deals with uncertainty as every process of

getting observations whether controlled or
uncontrolled, involves deficiencies or chance
variation. That is why we have to talk in terms of
probability since the inferences which are made
about the population on the basis of sample
M. Usman, Department of Math 61
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Population vs
Sample Statistical

Inference
Population Sample
(have Parameters) (have Statistic)

Parameters: µ, Statistic: 𝑿ഥ, S,

r
σ, ρ
Population: A Sample: A
Population is a representative
group of all part/subset of
object/elements/item the
M. Usman, Department of Math 62
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Why
Sampling?
•A process of drawing a sample from population
is called sampling.
• Reduced cost
• Greater speed
• Greater accuracy
• Some times it is the only option (testing the life of
bulbs/bullets)

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Branches of
Statistics
Statisti
cs

Descripti Inferenti
ve al
Descriptive statistics are brief
descriptive coefficients that Using sample
information such
as 𝑿ഥ, S, r, p to draw
summarize a given data set, which
can be either a representation of the
entire or a sample of a population.
Descriptive statistics are broken Inference about
down into measures of central
M. Usman, Department of Math
Unknown Population 64
tendency and measures of variability& Stat Parameters.
Variabl Any Characteristics that varies from Object to
Object, Place to Place or Over time is known as
e Variable. e.g., marks, age, height, sex, temperature,
sales, revenue, time etc.
Variabl
e
Ǫualitativ Ǫuantitativ
e e
Characteristic Continuo
which
varies in quality Discret
us
numerically)
(not e
e.g., Eye No. of Height
colour, students No. Weight
Education of chairs No. Marks
level, of deaths Time
Behaviour, No. of births Distanc
Ǫuality, in a hospital e
Exercise of type of
variables
•A school is conducting a survey to understand
students' academic performance, interests,
and demographic information. They collect
data on the following variables:
1.Age of students
2.Favorite subject (Math, Science, English,
History) 3.Number of classes attended per
week 4.Student's grade level (e.g., Grade
1, Grade 2, etc.) 5.Average test score
6.Participation in extracurricular activities
(Yes/No)
Identifying the Types of
Variables M. Usman, Department of Math 66
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Another
exercise
A software company is conducting a study on the usage patterns and
specifications of employees' computers to optimize performance. They
collect data on the following variables:
1.Computer brand (e.g., Dell, HP, Apple, Lenovo)
2.Processor speed (in GHz)
3.Amount of RAM (in GB)
4.Operating system (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux)
5.Hours of usage per day
6.Is the computer used for gaming? (Yes/No)
7.Screen size (in inches)
8.Primary use of the computer (e.g., Development, Design, General Office, Data
Analysis)
9.Number of software applications installed
10.Years since purchase

Identify the type of variable for eachDepartment

M. Usman, of the variables listed above.
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Measureme
nt
• The concept of measurement scales was introduced by
psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens in 1951.
• He developed a framework to classify data based on how
numbers or labels are assigned to represent attributes or
characteristics of objects, people, states, or events.
• His classification identifies four levels of measurement:
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio, each reflecting
different properties and relationships among data points.
This system allows researchers to determine the most
suitable analytical methods based on the scale of
measurement.
M. Usman, Department of Math 68
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Measurement
Scales
• Measurement scales refer to the system used to categorize
and quantify variables based on the relationship between
values. Stanley Smith Stevens defined four types of
measurement scales: Nominal, Ordinal,
Interval, and Ratio. Each scale has specific characteristics
and
influences how data is analyzed. Let’s look at each scale in
detail with examples, including general scenarios and
those specific to computer science.

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Nomin
al• The nominal scale is the simplest type of measurement. It
categorizes
data into distinct groups or categories without any
quantitative value or order.

• where
Nominalorder of the
scales arecategories is not important.
mutually exclusive (non-overlapping)
categories
• Only distinguishes between categories
• No inherent order among the categories
• Suitable for labeling and counting frequencies

Examples: Sex, Blood Groups, Religion, Marital status, Political

affiliation, Eye color Programming Languages: Categories like Python,
Java, C++, and JavaScript.
M. Usman, Department of Math 70
Operating System: Categories like &Windows,
Stat macOS, Linux, and
Ordin
al
• Order of the values is important and significant, but the
differences between each one is not really known.
Poor  Fair  Good  Very Good  Excellent

• But, Is the difference between “Very Good” and “Excellent”

the same as the difference between “Good” and “Very
Good?” We can’t say.

Example:
Students’ Grades
Class Positions
Cricket teams standings in ICC ranking
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Ordinal …
continue
• The ordinal scale categorizes data with a meaningful order or
rank among categories but without precise intervals between
them.
• Data can be ordered or ranked.
• Differences between ranks are not consistent or measurable.
• Example: Education Level: Categories include High School,
Bachelor’s, Master’s, PhD. (There is an order, but the
difference in years of study or expertise between each level
is not uniform)
• Example: User Access Levels: Categories like Guest, User,
Moderator, Administrator. (These represent a hierarchy of
permissions, though not with equal intervals between
levels). M. Usman, Department of Math
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Interv
al
• Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only
the order, but also the exact differences between the values.
i.e., Constant interval size
• No “true zero” point i.e., Zero does not mean absence

• With interval data, we can add and subtract, but cannot

multiply or divide.
Example:
Temperat
ure Shoe
size
IǪ scores
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Rati
o
•Ratio scales tell us about the order, they tell us the
exact value
between units, AND they also have a “true zero” point

Example:
Height, Weight, Speed, Length, Age
Storage Capacity: Measured in bytes, a storage capacity of 0
GB means no storage. A 500 GB hard drive has twice the
capacity of a 250 GB hard drive.
Memory Usage: Memory measured in MB or GB where 0 means
no memory usage. 8 GB M.ofUsman,
RAM is twice as much as 4 GB 74
Department of Math
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Just look at some of the
Graphs …

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 Line
chart
with
respect
to time

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 Bar chart

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Multiple
bar chart

Cluster
bar chart

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A histogram is a type of chart that
represents the distribution of a
numeric (continuous) variable by
grouping the data into bins (intervals)
and displaying the frequency or
count of data points within each bin.
Unlike a bar chart, which typically
represents categorical
continuous data, aM. Usman, Department of Math
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• Age (years)
• Weight (kilograms)
• Height (centimeters)
• Temperature (degrees Celsius)
• Time Spent on a task (minutes)
• Scores on a test
• Distance traveled (kilometers)
• Salary (dollars)
• Calories Consumed (calories)
• Rainfall (millimeters)
• CPU Usage (percentage)
• RAM Usage (GB)
• Response Time (milliseconds)
• Download Speed (Mbps)
• File Size (MB)Disk Read/Write Speed
(MB/s)
• Battery Life (hours)
• Execution Time (seconds) 8
0
Lets learn to make these at
you own…

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Qualitative
data
Example 1: Consider the data about Sex of 10 students
Sex M F M M F M F M M M

• Make a frequency distribution, relative frequency and %

frequency of the above data and interpret your results?
Make an appropriate graph?
Example 2: Suppose we have also collected data of
Sections
Sex of
M these
F M10 students
M F as F
M M M M
Section A A A B B B A B A B

• Construct the Cross tabulation of the above data and

interpret your results? M.Also makeof an
Usman, Department Math appropriate graph? 82
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Solutio
n Sex Sec Sec B Total
Example Sex f Relative % Example
1 freq freq 2
A
Male 7 0.7 70 Male 3 4 7

Female 3 0.3 30 Female 2 1 3

Total 10 1.0 100 Total 5 5 10

Bar Chart Multiple Bar chart

8 7 5
7
4
6

Frequency
Frequency

Sec A
5 3
4 3 2 Sec B
3
2 1
1
0 0
Male Female Male Female
Sex M. Usman, Department of Math Sex 8
& Stat 3
Simple Bar
Chart
• A bar chart is a type of chart which shows the values
of different categories of data as rectangular bars
with different lengths.
Example:
cities Draw
of the a Simple Bar Chart to represent the
province
Bar diagram showing
Population of 5
Punjab. Population of 5
Cities Population
12,00 cities of Punjab
(000) 0 10,35
5
Lahore 10,355 10,00

Population in
0
Rawalpind 4,765 4,76
8,000
i 5 3,67

‘000’
3,10
6,000 5
Faisalaba 3,675 4,000
1,55 0
0
d
2,000
Lahor Rawalpindi Sargodh Multa
Sargodha 1,550 M. Usman, Department e
0 of Math Faisalabad a n
& Stat 84
Multiple Bar
Chart
Populati Multiple Bar Chart showing
Cities on (000) Male Femal
e Population of Males
600
538
and Females
Lahore 10,355 5385 4,970 0
5 4,97
500 0 Male Female
Rawalpindi 4,765 2478 2,287 0
400
s s

POPULATI
Faisalabad 3,675 1911 1,764 0
300
Sargodha 1,550 806 744 0 24728,28

ON
200 7 19111,76
0 4
100 80674
0
0 4
Lahor Rawalpindi Sargodh
e
M. Usman, Department of Math
Faisalabad a 8
& Stat 5
Component Bar
Chart
Component Bar Chart showing
Cities Pop Male Female population of both Males and
(000) Females and Total
12000
Lahore 10,355 5385 4,970 1000 Males
0
Female
Rawalpindi 4,765 2478 2,287 800 4,97
s

Populati
0
0
600
Faisalabad 3,675 1911 1,764 0

on
400
Sargodha 1,550 806 744 2,28
0
538 7 1,76
200 4
0
5 247 744
191
0 8 806
1
Lahor Rawalpindi Sargodh
e Faisalabad a
M. Usman, Department of Math 8
& Stat Cities 6
Discrete data – Frequency
Distribution
Example:
• Following data represents the number of infected
plants from a sample of twenty experimental plots.
Your task is to present it in tabular form.

1 2 4 3 0 1 2 3 1
1 0
2 1 0 2 3 0 0 1 3

M. Usman, Department of Math 87

& Stat
Discrete Frequency
Distribution
No. of infected Tally Frequency Relative
items frequenc
f
X y
0 |||| 5 5/20 = 0.25
1 |||| | 6 0.30
2 |||| 4 0.20
3 |||| 4 0.20
4 | 1 0.05
Total 20 1.00
M. Usman, Department of Math 88
& Stat
Graphical Representation of
Discrete Data
Bar Chart representing the
infected items
7
6
6
5
5
Frequen

4 4
4
cy

2
1
1

0 0 1 2 3 4
No. of infected
M. Usman, Department of Math 89
& Stat items
Pie
Chart
• A pie chart is a type of graph in which a circle is
divided into sectors that each represent a
proportion of the whole.
Example: The blood group of 70 students were
tested and the following results were obtained.
Blood No. of
Groups Studen Blood
ts (f)
Groups of
A 8 Students
17% 11%
A
B 30 B
29% 43%
O 20 O
A

AB 12 B

M. Usman, Department of Math 90

& Stat
Pie
Chart
Blood No. of Relativ Percent Angl
Groups e e rf
Stude frequen frequen x 360
nt s cy cy
(f)
A 88/70 = 0.11*100 = 39.6
0.11 11 Divide the total
B 30 0.43 43
154. angle of the
8 Circle 360 into
O 20 0.29 29
104. four segments
4
as calculated
AB 12 0.17 17
61.2

Total 70 1.0 100 360

M. Usman, Department of Math 91
0 & Stat
Simple Bar
Chart
• Consider the Same example of the blood group of
70 students
Blood
Blood No. of Groups
3
Grou Studen 3
5
ps ts (f) 0
3
A 8 0
2
B 30 2 0
5
1
O 20 2 2
8
AB 12 0
1
5
A B O
1 AB
M. Usman, Department of Math 92
0
& Stat
Simple Bar
Chart
Example: Draw a Simple Bar Chart to represent the
turnover of a company for 6 years.
Bar diagram showing the Turnover
of a company
Years Turnov 70,00
for 6 years
er (Rs) 0

2002 25,000 60,00

0

Turnover in
2003 29,000
50,00
2004 44,000 0
Rs.
2005 49,000 40,00
0
2006 60,000 30,00
0
2007 64,000 2002 200 200 200 200
20,00 4 Year 5 6 9 7
0 2003 3
Obtaining
Data
Published source
book, journal, newspaper, Published reports
Designed experiment
researcher exerts strict control over units
Survey
a group of people are surveyed and their responses are recorded
Administrative Records

M. Usman, Department of Math 94

& Stat
we will be dealing with various techniques for summarizing and describing
qualitative data.

Qualitative

Univariate Bivariate
Frequency Frequency
Table Table

Percentages
Component Multiple
Pie Chart Bar Chart Bar Chart

Bar Chart

We will begin with the univariate situation, and will proceed to

the bivariate situation.
M. Usman, Department of Math 95
& Stat
Frequency Distribution
& Histogram

M. Usman, Department of Math 96

& Stat
Following data Classes Frequency c.f. r.f. % freq
represents the plant (f)
height (cm) of a 86–90 6 6 0.200 20.0
sample87of 3091plants.
89 91–95 4 10 0.133 13.3
88 89 91 96–100 10 20 0.333 33.3
87 92 90 101–105 6 26 0.200 20.0
98 95 97
106–110 3 29 0.100 10.0
96 100
101 111–115 1 30 0.033 3.3
96 98 99 Total 30 1.000 100.0
98 100
Histogram
102
12
99 101 10
105 10
103 107 8
105 Frequenc Frequency 6 6
6
106 107 y 4
4 3
112
distributi 2 1
on & 0
Histogra 85.5–90.5 90.5–95.5 95.5–100.5 100.5–105.5
Class Boundries
105.5–110.5 110.5–115.5
M. Usman, Department of Math 9
m & Stat 7
Frequency
Distribution
•Tabular arrangement of data in which various items
are arranged into classes or groups and the number
of items falling in each class is stated.
•The number of observations falling in a
particular class is referred to as class
frequency "f".
•Data presented in the form of a frequency
distribution is also called grouped data.

M. Usman, Department of Math 9

& Stat 8
Some
definitions
Class Limits
• The class limits are defined as the number or the values of the
variables which are used to separate two classes. Sometimes
classes are taken as 20--25, 25--30 etc In such a case, these class
limits means " 20 but less than 25", "25 but less than 30" etc
Class marks or midpoints
• The class mark or the midpoint is that value which divides a class
into two equal parts. It is obtained by dividing the sum of lower and
upper class limits or class boundaries of a class by 2.
Class interval
• The difference between either two successive lower class limits or
two
successive upper class limits OR
M. Usman, Department of Math 9
• The difference between two
& Stat successive midpoints. 9
Exampl
e
• The following data represents the height of 30 wheat
plants taken from the experimental area. Construct a
frequency distribution and appropriate graphs to explain
the distribution of data:

87 91 89 88 89 91 87 92 90 98
95
97 96 100 101 96 98 99 98 100 102
99
101 105 103 107 105 106 107 112

M. Usman, Department of Math 10

& Stat 0
Construction of a frequency
distribution
• Decide the number of classes:

𝑛=5.47 
K=1+3.3 log(n)=5.87 or
6
Classes
• Determine the range of variation of the data i.e,

𝒉 = = 25/6 = 4.17  5 Class

𝑹R= Max – Min = 112 – 87 = 25
𝑲
• Determine the approximate size of class interval
Interval
• Decide where to locate the class
limits  86-90, 91-95, …
• Distribute the data into appropriate
classes M. Usman, Department of Math 10
& Stat 1
Frequency
Distribution
Classes Class Tally Freq c.f. r.f. % freq Cumulative
Boundaries (f) %
freq
86–90 85.5–90.5 6 6 0.20 20.0 20.00
0
91–95 90.5–95.5 4 10 0.13 13.3 33.3
3
96–100 95.5–100.5 10 20 0.33 33.3 66.6
3
101–105 100.5–105.5 6 26 0.20 20.0 86.6
0
106–110 105.5–110.5 3 29 0.10 10.0 96.6
0
111–115 110.5–115.5 1 30 0.03 3.3 100.0
M. Usman, Department of Math 3 10
& Stat 2
Class
Boundaries
• Class Boundaries
• Subtract any Upper Class Limit from its Subsequent Lower
Class limit and divide the difference with 2, you will get
the Continuity correction factor
• Subtract this factor from all Lower Class Limits and add it
to all Upper Class limits.

For example, 91-90 = ½ =0.05 or 96-95 = ½ =0.05

M. Usman, Department of Math 10

& Stat 3
Histogra
m
Histogram of Height of 30
12 Students
10
10

8
Frequency

6 6
6
4
4 3

2 1

0
85.5–90.5 90.5–95.5 95.5–100.5 100.5–105.5 105.5–110.5 110.5–
Class Boundries 115.5
M. Usman, Department of Math 10
& Stat 4
Frequency
Polygon
• Frequency polygons are a graphical device for
understanding the shapes of distributions. They serve
the same purpose as histograms, but are especially
• helpful for comparing
Mid Points vs sets of data.
Frequency Polygon
Frequency 12

10

Frequency
6

0
88 93 98 108 113
M. Usman, Department of Math 10
& Stat 103 5
Cumulative Frequency Polygon
/ Ogive
• A cumulative frequency polygon is a plot of the cumulative
frequency against the upper class boundary with the
points joined by a line segment.
• Upper Class Boundaries vs Cumulative Frequency
Cumulative Frequency Polygon / Ogive
35
30

Cumulative Frequency
25
20
15
10
5
0
90.5 95.5 100.5 105.5 110.5 115.5
M. Usman, Department of Math Upper Class Boundaries 106
& Stat
Stem & Leaf
Display
• A relatively small data set can be represented by stem and
leaf display.
• In addition to information on the number of observations
falling in the various classes, it displays details of what
those observations actually are.
• Each number in the data set is divided into two parts, a Stem
and a Leaf. A stem is the leading digit(s) of each number and
is used in sorting, while a leaf is the rest of the number or the
trailing digit(s) and shown in display.

M. Usman, Department of Math 10

& Stat 7
Exampl
e
Use the data below to Stem Leaf
make a stem-and-leaf plot
by taking 10 as a unit. 7 0589
85 115 126 92 104 8 4558
85 116 100 121 123 9 022379
79 90 110 129 108
10 0478
107 78 131 114 92
131 88 97 99 116 11 04566
93 84 75 70 132 12 1369
13 112
7
10
0589 8
Exampl
e
Represent the following data by Stem and Leaf display by
(i)taking 10 unit as the width of the class
(ii)taking 5 unit as the width of the class
32 45 38 41 49 36 52 56 51 62
63 59
68 Steam Leaf *indicate 0—4
Steam Leaf 3* 2 .indicate 5—9
3. 8 6
3 2 8 6 4* 1
4. 5 9 * and . are called placeholder
4 5 1 9
5* 2 1
5 2 6 1 9 5. 6 9
6* 2 3
6 2 3 8 epartment
a th &
8
M. Usman, of M 10
D 6 . Stat 9
Example
Minimum value = 8 Maximum value = 112
Stem unit = 10 Width of class = 10 Arranged stem and leaf table

Stem Leaf Stem Leaf

8 98797 8 77899
9 1120857668989 9 0112566788899
10 01021537567 10 00112355677
11 2 11 2

M. Usman, Department of Math 11

& Stat 0
Example of Stem & Leaf display –
Class Example
Width = 5
Width of class

= 5 Stem Leaf
8* -
8. 79897
9* 1120
9. 857668989
10* 010213
10. 57567
11* 2
11. -

M. Usman, Department of Math 11

& Stat 1
Back to Back Stem and Leaf
display
• Two data sets can be compared using Back-to-Back stem
and leaf display. In this case a single stem is constructed
and the values of one data set are assigned on the left and
the value of second data set are assigned on the right of
the stem.

Example: Compared using Back-to-Back stem and leaf display

Data 1) 32, 45, 38, 41, 49, 36, 52, 56, 51, 62, 63, 59, 68
Data 2) 23, 58, 26, 57, 55, 65, 29, 36, 59, 69, 60

M. Usman, Department of Math 11

& Stat 2
 Data 1 Data 2
32 = Mini.value 23

=
68 = Maxi.value = 69
Stem unit = 10 Width of class = 10
Data 1 Data 2
(#13) (# 11)
Leaf Leaf
2 369
682 3 6
915 4
9162 5 8759
832 6 590
M. Usman, Department of Math 11
& Stat 3
Exercis
es

M. Usman, Department of Math 11

& Stat 4