17IBT201 – FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING

UNIT 1:
FOOD PRE-PROCESSING &
CONVERSION METHODS
 SYLLABUS
Unit 1 FOOD PRE-PROCESSING & CONVERSION METHODS 10 Hours
Scope and importance of food processing in India and abroad, hurdles faced
by food processing industry, Govt. of India initiatives (Food laws &
standards, FDI, Food park, Make in India).
Properties of food- Physical, thermal, mechanical, sensory (Numericals).
Raw material preparation- cleaning, sorting, grading, peeling.
Classification and types of food processing operations: thermal, non-thermal,
radiation
Food conversion operations:
Size reduction- stress-strain curve, laws of size reduction (Numericals),
Equipments – fibrous foods, dry foods, liquid foods;
Filtration - theory: constant pressure filtration (Numericals), vacuum filters;
Membrane separation- theory, types and selection, reverse osmosis,
Ultrafiltration, membrane separation units (Numericals).
 Scope and importance of food processing
• India is called the fruit and vegetable basket of the world
• Indian agriculture
– supports 60% of population for their livelihood
– 17% Contribution to GDP in India.
• Engineering inputs for modernization of agriculture, agro-
processing and rural living
– for increasing production, productivity with reduced
unit cost of production for greater profitability,
economic competitiveness and sustainability.
• Agricultural produce and by-products are
perishable in nature in varying degree
– orchestrated by factors of demand and supply,
intervention of the faces of marketing
 Scope and importance of food processing

Food, Agriculture and Mechanization

• Food provides nutrients like proteins,
carbohydrates, fats minerals and vitamins.
• Agriculture is practiced in two phases.
– the production agriculture and the goal is to get
maximum productivity and
• post production agriculture where the major
targets are prevention of loss and value addition
 Scope and importance of food processing
Food Processing
• Food processing operations - methods used to add value
to the raw food materials
• Raw food materials are transformed into edible products
• Food processing classification
– Primary processing: conversion of raw agricultural
produce, milk, meat and fish into a commodity that is fit
for human consumption (Potato in local market)
– Secondary processing: deal with higher levels of
processing where new or modified food products are
manufactured (Potato Chips)
– Tertiary processing: Potato wafers (Lays)
• Rural employment
• Prevention of capital drain from rural to urban areas
 Scope and importance of food processing
Importance of Food Processing
• All the raw food materials are processed to improve
their palatability, nutritional value and shelf-life.
• Foods are processed for five major reasons:
1. preservation for later consumption or sale to
fetch better price - primary reason
2. removal of inedible portions
3. destruction or removal of harmful substances
4. conversion to forms desired by the consumer
and
5. subdivision into food ingredients.
 Scope and importance of food processing
Scope of Food Processing
• World: Largest producer- China, Second - India
• India - 16% of the world’s total food grain production
• Only 2% of produced food is processed in India
• Opportunity for large investments
– Food and food processing technologies
– Skills and equipment: Canning, Dairy and Food Processing,
Packaging, Frozen Food/Refrigeration and Thermo-Processing.
– Sub sectors: Fruits & Vegetables Processing, Fisheries, Milk &
Milk Products, Meat & Poultry, Packaged/Convenience Foods,
Alcoholic Beverages & Soft Drinks and Grain processing
• India has a huge potential domestic demand for processed
foods other than the demand from the exports – Online
shops and Malls
• The changing lifestyles
 Scope and importance of food processing
Present status of Food Processing
• Food processing sector in the country is mainly handled by
the unorganized sectors
– 42% - Unorganized sector
– 25% - Organized sector
– 33% - Small scale industries
• Ministry of Food Processing Industries (http://www.mofpi.nic.in/)
– Mega Food Park Project – 33 all over India – PPP model (
http://www.megafoodparks.com/)
– In Karnataka: India Food Park, Tumkur - 110 acres, 22,000-
tonne storage capacity, 30 food processing companies and an
investment of Rs. 1000 crores – Govt. share Rs. 150 crore -
September 24, 2015 (www.indiafoodpark.co.in)
• Priority sector in “Make in India” movement
• During (Apr-Jan.) 2014-15, food processing sector has attracted US$
500 Million FDI in the country
 Scope and importance of food processing
Key constraints for growth
• Biggest constraint- food processing industry is capital
intensive
– strong entry barrier, allows lesser number of players to
enter the market
• lesser players  lesser competition  reduced efforts
to improve the quality standards
• Poor infrastructure for storing raw food materials
• Two main types of storages – the warehouses and the
cold storages
• Poor quality standards and control methods – new
standards are set by FSSAI in 2016.
• Other limitations- Quality power, Quality of water for
processing, instruments for rapid and reliable analysis,
versatile instruments/equipments for multi commodity
 Properties of Food
→ Physical
 Density  Viscosity  Surface activity
 Rheology Texture,
 Powder : Bulk density, Particle density
→ Thermal
 Sp. heat  Thermal conductivity
 Thermal Diffusivity
→ Mechanical
 Structure  Water activity
 Phase transition  Glass transition
→ Sensory
Texture  Taste  Flavor
Aroma  Color
Properties of Food
Physical Properties
• Density:
– A function of temperature
– Densities of solid & liquid foods (next slides)
• Liquids –mass/volume
• Solids – Density & Bulk density (porosity)
• Specific gravity, Specific volume
– Air incorporated in liquids  Foam formation
• Amount of air incorporated = Over-run

• Ice cream = 60-100%

• Whipped cream = 100-120%
Properties of Food – Physical - Density
Properties of Food – Physical - Density
Properties of Food - Physical
Viscosity
• Characteristic mouth feel (Ketch-up, syrup, jelly)
• Function of temperature
• Stream line – Shearing force – Shear rate
– Newtonian fluids
– Non Newtonian fluids (Fig - next slide)
• Pseudoplastic (concentrated fruit juice, purees)
• Dilatent (Liquid chocolate, corn flour)
• Bingham (Starch)
• Casson Plastic (Ketch up)
• Thixotropic: structure breaks down, viscosity decreases
(creams)
• Rheopectic: structure builds up, viscosity increases
(Whipping cream)
• Visco-elastic: viscous & elastic (dough, cheese)
Properties of Food – Physical - Viscosity

A: Newtonian Fluid, B: Pseudoplastic C: Dilatent

D: Bingham E: Casson Plastic
Properties of Food - Physical
Surface Activity
• Mixture of 2 immiscible phases
– Dispersed phase: small droplets
– Continuous phase: droplets are uniformly distributed
• Provides larger surface area
• High energy needed to break surface tension
Properties of Food – Physical – Surface activity

• Emulsions
– Liquid in liquid
– Reduce surface tension
– Surfactants / detergents / emulsifiers
– Reduce surface tension, lesser energy for blending
– Natural: Egg yolk in cake batter
– Synthetic: Lecithin (phospholipid) in baked goods
• Foams
– Gas in liquid/solid (ice creams)
– Also used for cleaning equipment
– Minimal loss of trapped air in bubble
– Foam stabilization by freezing, gelation, heating (cake)
Properties of Food - Physical
Rheology & Texture
• Perception of quality
Properties of Food - Physical
Powders
• Bulk Density
– Density of powder as a whole
– Loose bulk density
– Packed bulk density
• Particle density
– Density of individual particle
 Properties of Food
→ Physical
 Density  Viscosity  Surface activity
 Rheology Texture,
 Powder : Bulk density, Particle density
→ Thermal
 Sp. heat  Thermal conductivity
 Thermal Diffusivity
→ Mechanical
 Structure  Water activity
 Phase transition  Glass transition
→ Sensory
Texture  Taste  Flavor
Aroma  Color
 Properties of Food
Thermal Properties
• Specific Heat

• Essential for thermal analysis of food processing

or of the equipment used in heating or cooling of
foods
• C = f (components, moisture, T, P)
• Cp (most cases) & Cv (high pressure operations)
• Estimation of Cp
– Database
– Empirical equations
– Experimental methods (Bomb’s calorimeter)
Properties of Food – Thermal – Specific heat

• Empirical models
– Charm’s model

X= mass fraction, f=fat, s=non fat, w=moisture

– Heldman & Singh Model

Carbohydrate, protein, fat, ash, moisture

– Comprehensive model
 Properties of Food – Thermal – Specific heat

Problem: Predict the specific heat for a model food

with the following composition: carbohydrate 40%,
protein 20%, fat 10%, ash 5%, moisture 25%.

Using Heldman & Singh Model

Cp = 1.424*0.4+1.549*0.2+1.675*0.1 +
0.837*0.05+4.187*0.25

Cp = 2.1355 kJ/kg
Properties of Food – Thermal
Thermal Conductivity
• Measure of conductive HT  ‘k’
• SI Unit ?
• K of Water: 0.597 SI Unit (at 20C) =~ Highly moist food
• K of Air: 0.0251 SI unit (at 20C) =~ highly porous food
• Empirical relations:
– Fruits & Vegetables (moisture > 60%)

– Sweat Model
Properties of Food – Thermal
Thermal Diffusivity
• Ratio of thermal conductivity to thermal capacity

• SI Unit?
 Properties of Food
→ Physical
 Density  Viscosity  Surface activity
 Rheology Texture,
 Powder : Bulk density, Particle density
→ Thermal
 Sp. heat  Thermal conductivity
 Thermal Diffusivity
→ Mechanical
 Structure  Water activity
 Phase transition / Glass transition
→ Sensory
Texture  Taste  Flavor
Aroma  Color
 Properties of Food
Mechanical Properties
Structure:
• Nature of food  Heterogeneous
• Different phases – Not in equilibrium – factor that makes the
food to have desirable property
• Structural elements of food:
 Cellular structure: Cellular tissues, Turgor pressure, crisp
structure, fleshy appearance, Baked foods
 Fibrous Structure: Physical fibers (meat), chewiness
 Gels: Colloidal, dissolution of polymer in solvent, gelation,
Ex: Yogurt, custard, tofu, jam, confectioneries
 Emulsions: Intimate mixtures of two mutually immiscible liquids
Ex: Milk, cream, salad --- Butter, margarine
 Foams: Air filled, icecream, antifoams
 Powders: Solid particles (10-1000um), dust & granules
Properties of Food - Mechanical

Water Activity:
• Def: Ratio of the water vapor pressure of the food to the vapor
pressure of pure water at the same temperature

• %RH of air
• Equilibrium relative humidity (ERH)
• Classification based on water content
– High water: Fruit, vegetable
– Intermediate moisture: Bread
– Low moisture: milk powder
• Both beneficial, adverse effect
• Prediction: Raolt’s law, aw = xw = p/pO
Properties of Food - Mechanical

Phase Transition / Glass Transition:

• Foods are metastable
• Solid & semisolid food with low & intermediate moisture
• Ex: Honey  Increase Conc. & decrease T  Slow rate 
Crystallization
– Rapid rates: Viscous fluid transforms to amorphous
transparent solid – candies -> Vitreous food / glassy food
• The phenomenon of passage from the highly
viscous, rubbery semi-liquid to the rigid glass is
called ‘glass transition ’
• Temperature at which glass transition occurs is the ‘
glass transition temperature, Tg
• Glass transition temperature
is strongly dependent on
concentration.
• Dilute solutions have lower Tg
• Water acts as a plasticizer
 Properties of Food
→ Physical
 Density  Viscosity  Surface activity
 Rheology Texture,
 Powder : Bulk density, Particle density
→ Thermal
 Sp. heat  Thermal conductivity
 Thermal Diffusivity
→ Mechanical
 Structure  Water activity
 Phase transition / Glass transition
→ Sensory
Texture  Taste / Flavor
Aroma  Color
 Properties of Food
• Texture: Sensory Properties
– Food texture is defined as those properties of a food that are
sensed by touch in the mouth and with the hands. We use
many words to describe food texture
– soft or hard, mushy or crunchy, smooth or lumpy.
– determined by the moisture and fat contents, and the types
and amounts of structural carbohydrates (cellulose, starches
and pectic materials) & proteins
– The characteristics of foods affect consumers preferences
– Consistency relate to flow and deformation
– Hardness resistance to deformation
– Firmness property of a substance able to resist deformation
under its own weight. It can be defined the force required to
bite through the food.
– Brittleness fracturing before significant flow has occurred.
Properties of Food - Sensory

• Taste /Flavor :
– Taste attributes : saltiness, sweetness, bitterness and
acidity
– determined by the formulation used
– unaffected by processing (Exceptions: respiration,
fermentation)
• Aroma:
– complex mixtures of volatile compounds
– Some are detectable at very low concentrations
– may be lost during processing
– produced by the action of heat, ionising radiation,
oxidation or enzyme activity on proteins, fats and
carbohydrates.
– Synergistic effect of reaction products
 Properties of Food - Sensory

• Color:
– naturally occurring pigments are
• destroyed by heat processing
• chemically altered by changes in pH
• oxidised during storage
– Synthetic pigments are more stable to heat, light and
changes in pH
– Maillard browning
• cause of both desirable changes in food colour (baking or
frying)
• development of off-colours (canning and drying)
– Anthocyanins, Betalaines, Carotenes, Curcumin
(Turmeric), Polyphenols (Tea)
 Food processing
• Food processing refers to the application of techniques to foods
in a systematic manner for preventing losses through
preservation, processing, packaging, storage and distribution,
ultimately to ensure greater availability of a wide variety of
foods which would help to improve the food intake and
nutritional standards during the periods of low availability.
• The main objective of fruits and vegetables processing is to
supply wholesome safe, nutritious and acceptable food to
consumers throughout the year.
• Raw material preparation: Post harvest, pre-processing
– Cleaning
– sorting
– grading
– peeling
 Raw material preparation
• Cleaning is the unit operation in which contaminating
materials are removed from the food and separated to
leave the surface of the food in a suitable condition for
further processing.
• The presence of contaminants (or foreign bodies) in
processed foods is the main cause of prosecution of
food companies.
 Raw material preparation
Cleaning
• To be done at the earliest opportunity
• Cleaning methods:
– Wet Procedures
– Dry Procedures
• Wet Cleaning: Spray washers, brush washers, drum washer,
ultrasonic wash, floatation tank
– Large amount of effluent
– Chances of increasing microbial spoilage
• Dry Cleaning: products that are smaller, have greater
mechanical strength and possess a lower moisture content
(grains and nuts)
– air classifiers, magnetic separators, separators based on
screening of foods
– Produces dust but not effluent
 Sorting Raw material preparation

• Separation of foods into categories on the basis of a

measurable physical property
– physical properties: size, shape, weight & colour
• Size & Shape sorting / screening
– Aperture: fixed, variable Size: 50 um – 125 mm
– Fixed apertures
• Movement: Vibrations and gyrations
• Concentric, perforated drum screens
– Variable aperture
• continuously diverging aperture or a stepwise increase in
aperture
• used to sort fruits and other foods that are easily damaged
 Sorting Raw material preparation

• Color Sorting:
– Vision sorting system: Monochrome, bichrome,
trichrome, full color
– Sensors identify based on colors/ light intensities and
then sort them
• Particles are fed into chute one at a time.
• Angle, shape and lining material of chute are altered to
control the velocity of pieces as the pass a photo
detector.
• Photo detectors measure the reflected color of each
piece and compare it with preset standards
• Defective foods are separated by a short blast of
compressed air
Weight Sorting Raw material preparation

• More accurate than other methods

– Used for more valuable foods
• Aspiration and flotation sorting
– use differences in density to sort food
– similar in principle and operation to aspiration and
flotation cleaning
 Grading Raw material preparation

• Assessment of overall quality of a food using a number of

attributes
• Grading is carried out by operators who are trained to
simultaneously assess a number of variables.
• Eggs: Visually inspected over tungsten lights (candling) to
assess up to twenty factors (fertilised, malformed, contain
blood spots or rot)
• Meats: Disease, fat distribution, bone to flesh ratio, carcass
size and shape
• Cheese and tea: flavour, aroma, colour
• Apples: Assistance of coloured cards (show the required
characteristics of different grades in terms of colour)
distribution across the fruit, surface blemishes and size and
shape of the fruit
 Peeling Raw material preparation
• Used in the processing of many fruits and
vegetables to remove unwanted or inedible
material, and to improve the appearance of the
final product
• methods of peeling:
– flash steam peeling
– knife peeling
– abrasion peeling
– caustic peeling
– flame peeling