Cell

It is the building block of all living

organism.
 Cell
Cycle
 Cell cycle

 The division of a unicellular organisms

reproduces an entire organism, increasing the
population.
 In a multicellular organism, cell division
functions to repair and renew cells that die from
normal wear and tear or accidents.
 Cell division is a part of cell cycle, the life of a
cell from its origin in the division of a parent cell
until its own division into two.
Cell division requires the distribution of identical genetic material—
DNA— to two daughter cells.

A cell’s genetic information, packaged as DNA, is called its genome.

• In prokaryotes, the genome is often a single long DNA molecule.
• In eukaryotes, the genome consists of several DNA molecules.

DNA molecules are packaged into chromosomes.

• Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell
nucleus.
• Human somatic cells (body cells) have 46 chromosomes, made up of two sets of 23
(one from each parent).
Human gametes (sperm or eggs) have one set of 23 chromosomes,
half the number in a somatic cell.
• Human gametes (sperm or eggs) have one set of 23
chromosomes, half the number of somatic cells.
• Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic
number of chromosomes in each cell
nucleus.
• Human somatic cells (body cells) have 46
chromosomes, made up of two sets of 23
(one from each parent).
• Each duplicated chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids, which contain identical copies of the
chromosome’s DNA.
• Later in cell division, the sister chromatids are
pulled apart and repackaged into two new nuclei at
opposite ends of the parents cells.
• Once the sister chromatids separate, they are
considered individual chromosomes.
Cell Cycle
 Interphase
It is the phase of the cell cycle in
which a typical cell spends most
of its life. During this time, the cell
grows, replicates its
chromosomes, and prepares for
cell division.
• G1 phase. During G1 phase, also called the first gap
phase, the cell grows physically larger, copies organelles,
and makes the molecular building blocks it will need in
later steps.
• S phase. In S phase, the cell synthesizes a complete
copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also duplicates a
microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome.
The centrosomes help separate DNA during M phase.
• G2 phase. During the second gap phase, or G2 phase,
the cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and
begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for
mitosis. G2 phase ends when mitosis begins.
• A checkpoint in the cell cycle is a critical control
point where stop and go-ahead signals regulate the
cycle.
• Three major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2,
and M phases.
• For many cells, the G1 checkpoint, the restriction
point, in mammalian cells, is the most important.
• If the cell receives a go-ahead signal at the
G1 checkpoint, it usually completes the cell
cycle and divides.
• If it does not receive a go-ahead signal, the cell
exits the cycle and switches to a non-dividing state,
the G0 phase.
• Most cells in the human body are in this
phase.
• Liver cells can be “called back” to the cell
cycle by external cues such as growth
factors released during injuries.
• Highly specialized nerve and muscle cells
never divides.
• Apoptosis – killing of the cells
• G2 phase – during late interphase
• Nucleus is well-defined and bounded by
nuclear envelope.
• Outside nucleus: two centrosomers formed
earlier by replication of single centrosomes.
• Microtubules extend from centrosomers in
radial array called Aster.
• The chromosomes have already duplicated
(during the S phase) but at this stage, they
cannot be distinguished individually because
they are still in the form of loosely packaged
chromatin fibers.
CELL ACTIVITIES AND
CHECKPOINTS
A Closer Look
 0
1
CELL CHECKPOINTS
THE G1, G2, S PHASE
CELL CHECKPOINTS
There are a number of checkpoints, but the three most important
ones are:

• G1 at the G1/S transition.

• The G2 at the G2/M transition.
• The spindle checkpoint.
CELL CHECKPOINTS
A checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which the cell
examines internal and external cues and “decides” whether or not
to move forward with division.
 CELL
CHECKPOINTS
THE SYNTHESIS
CHECKPOINT
Here, the cell examines whether all the sister chromatids are
correctly attached to the spindle microtubules.
THE G1 CHECKPOINT
The main decision point for a cell
Here are some of the factors a cell might assess:

Size Nutrients Molecular signals:

Is the cell large enough Does the cell have enough Is the cell receiving positive
to divide? energy reserves or available cues (such as growth factors)
nutrients to divide? from neighbors?

DNA integrity:
Is any of the DNA
damaged?
THE G2 CHECKPOINT
At this stage, the cell will check:

DNA integrity DNA replication

Is any of the DNA damaged? Was the DNA completely copied during S
phase?
 The general answer is that internal and external cues trigger
signalling pathways inside the cell that activate, or inactivate, a set
of core proteins that move the cell cycle forward.

How do the checkpoints

actually work?
 0
CELL ACTIVITIES 2
Adaptation, Growth, Reproduction,
Organization, and Metabolism
CELLADAPTATION
Cellular adaptations refer to the changes made by cells in
response to various stimuli or changes in their local
environment.
CELL ADAPTATION
Regeneration Antrophy
Regeneration is the Atrophy is the shrinkage of a
replacement of cell losses by tissue or organ due to a
identical cells to maintain decrease in size and/or
tissue or organ size. number of cells.
CELL ORGANIZATION
The components that make up a cell are called cellular organization.
Every component of the cell has certain specific and crucial functions
assigned, and the components of the cell are called organelle.
CELL METABOLISM
Cellular metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living
organisms in order to maintain life. Cellular metabolism involves complex
sequences of controlled biochemical reactions, better known as metabolic
pathways.
CELL GROWTH
Many cells mature and become specialised for their particular
job in the body. So they don’t make copies of themselves
(reproduce) so often.
CELL REPRODUCTION
Cellular reproduction is a process by which cells duplicate their contents
and then divide to yield multiple cells with similar, if not duplicate,
contents.
CONTENTS:
● HISTORY
● DEFINITION
● PHASES
● IMPORTANCE
 ● Hugo von Mohl
German botanist from Stuttgart. He
HISTORY
was the first person to use the
word “protoplasm”.

- Described cell division in

the green algae Cladophora
glomerata. (1935)
 HISTORY

● Waclaw Mayzel
Polish histologist who first
describe mitosis in animal
cells in 1875
 HISTORY
● Matthias Jakobson
Schleiden
In 1938, affirmed that “formation of
new cells in their interior was a
general rule for cell multiplication in
plants”.
MITOSIS
 HISTORY

● WALTER FLEMMING
A German biologist and founder of
cytogenetics.
He coined the term mitosis in
1882, from the Greek word
μίτος (mitos) meaning warp
thread.
 MITOSIS

● A type of cell division in which one cell

(the mother) divides to produce two new
cells (the daughters) that are genetically
identical to itself. In the context of the cell
cycle, mitosis is the part of the division
process in which the DNA of the cell's
nucleus is split into two equal sets of
chromosomes.
 Gap 1 (G1)

● During this time, the cell

grows in preparation for
DNA replication, and
certain intracellular
components, such as
the centrosomes
undergo replication.
S Phase

● During this
phase,
chromosomes in
the nucleus are
replicated and the
cell ends up with
twice as much
DNA.
 MITOTIC PHASE
a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells that occurs when a parent cell divides to produce
two identical daughter cells.
 G2 Phase

● Once DNA has been

replicated, the
cell produces
many organelles
and
molecules which
will be needed for
cell division. Then,
the cell enters the
next phase of the
cell cycle: either
mitosis or meiosis.
PROPHASE
● EARLY
PROPHASE
The mitotic spindle
starts to form, the
chromosomes start to
condense, and the
nucleolus disappears.
 LATE PROPHASE
(PROMETAPHASE)

The mitotic spindle

begins to capture and
organize the
chromosomes.
 METAPHASE

● The spindle has

captured all the
chromosomes and
lined them up at
the middle of the
cell, ready to
divide.
Motor Proteins:
Kinesins and Dyneins
 ANAPHASE

● The sister
chromatids
separate from
each other and
are pulled
towards
opposite ends of
the cell.
TELOPHASE

● C
 CYTOKINESIS

● The division of the

cytoplasm to form
two new cells,
overlaps with the
final stages of
mitosis. It may start
in either anaphase or
telophase, depending
on the cell, and
finishes shortly after
telophase.
 When
cytokinesis
finishes, we
end up with
two new cells,
each with a
complete set of
chromosomes
identical to
those of the
mother cell.
RECAP
 TEST YOUR
KNOWLEDGE
Meiosis
 Meiosis
is a process where a single cell
divides twice to produce four cells
containing half the original
amount of genetic information.
 Meiosis
• The form of cell division by which Gametes,
with half the number of chromosomes, are
produced.
• Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)
• Meiosis is sexual reproduction.
• The term Meiosis is coined by J.B Farmer
(1905).
• The cells in which meiosis occur are called
meiocytes.
Meiosis can be
divided into nine
stages. These are
divided between the
first time the cell
divides (meiosis I)
and the second time
it divides (meiosis
II):
parent cell and ends with two
haploid daughter cells, halving
the number of chromosomes in
each cell.
MEIOSIS II is divided into four
phases. Meiosis II starts with two
haploid parent cells and ends
with four haploid daughter cells,
maintaining the number of
chromosomes in each cell.
Interphase I

The DNA in the cell is copied resulting in two identical full sets of
chromosomes.

Outside of the nucleus are two centrosomes, each containing a pair of

centrioles, these structures are critical for the process of cell division.

During interphase, microtubules extend from these centrosomes.

Metaphase I

The chromosome pairs line up next to each other

along the center (equator) of the cell.

The centrioles are now at opposites poles of the cell

with the meiotic spindles extending from them.

The meiotic spindle fibers attach to one

chromosome of each pair.
Anaphase I

The pair of chromosomes are then pulled apart by the

meiotic spindle, which pulls one chromosome to one pole
of the cell and the other chromosome to the opposite pole.

In meiosis I the sister chromatids stay together. This is

different to what happens in mitosis and meiosis II.
Meiosi
s II
Telophase I and cytokinesis

The chromosomes complete their move to the opposite poles of the cell.

At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather together.

A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create two new nuclei.

The single cell then pinches in the middle to form two separate daughter cells each containing
a full set of chromosomes within a nucleus. This process is known as cytokinesis.
Prophase II

Now there are two daughter cells, each with 23 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromatids).

In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes condense again into visible X-shaped
structures that can be easily seen under a microscope.

The membrane around the nucleus in each daughter cell dissolves away releasing the
chromosomes.

The centrioles duplicate.

The meiotic spindle forms again.

Metaphase II

In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes (pair of sister

chromatids) line up end-to-end along the equator of the cell.

The centrioles are now at opposites poles in each of the daughter

cells.

Meiotic spindle fibers at each pole of the cell attach to each of the
sister chromatids.
Anaphase II

The sister chromatids are then pulled to opposite

poles due to the action of the meiotic spindle.

The separated chromatids are now individual

chromosomes.
 Telophase II and cytokinesis

The chromosomes complete their move to the opposite poles of

the cell.
• At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather
together.
• A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to
create two new cell nuclei.
• This is the last phase of meiosis, however, cell division is not
complete without another round of cytokinesis.
Once cytokinesis is complete there are
four granddaughter cells, each
with half a set of chromosomes
(haploid):
*in males, these four cells are all
sperm cells
*in females, one of the cells is an
egg cell while the other three are
polar bodies (small cells that do
not develop into eggs).
CROSSOVER & recombination
METAPHASE i
METAPHASE ii
ANAPHASE II
 Mitosis vs Meiosis

● Mitosis and meiosis are nuclear division processes that occur during
cell division.
● Mitosis involves the division of body cells, while meiosis involves the
division of sex cells.
● The division of a cell occurs once in mitosis but twice in meiosis.
● Two daughter cells are produced after mitosis and cytoplasmic
division, while four daughter cells are produced after meiosis.
● Daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid, while those resulting
from meiosis are haploid.
● Daughter cells that are the product of mitosis are genetically identical.
Daughter cells produced after meiosis are genetically diverse.
● Tetrad formation occurs in meiosis but not mitosis.
Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

● Cell Division
● Daughter Cell Number
● Genetic Composition
● Length of Prophase
● Tetrad Formation
● Chromosome Alignment in Metaphase