INTRODUCTION TO

ECOLOGY
BY MEDANIT B.

MSC IN ECOSYSTEM AND

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
 Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 The history of man and environment(Nature)
1.As Hunter-Gatherers
Early hunter gather –Control by environment
-Affect environment
2.Human against Nature
a. Agricultural society
 Starting to control over environment
 Invented Agriculture by growing selected wild plant close to
home
b . Industrial society- The introduction of
chemicals and wastes to the environment
Wastes dumped & released to natural
environment
Affect, life and natural set up of
the land as whole

Life become endangered

3.Humans and Nature: A sustainable Earth Society :

 Selective control based on ecological understanding and global
cooperation with nature to reduce undesirable environmental
effects
 What is Ecology????
 The term ecology was first coined in 1869 by
the German biologist Ernst Haeckel.
 Ithas been derived from two Greek words,
‘oikos’, meaning home or estate and ‘logos’
meaning study.
 The emphasis is on relationships between
organisms and the components of the
environment namely abiotic (non-living) and
biotic (living).
 Therefor Ecology ‘can be defined as the
scientific study of the relationship of living
organisms with each other and with their
environment.
What is Ecology????????

 The science of ecology includes

everything from global
processes (above), the study of
various marine and terrestrial
habitats (middle) to individual
interspecific interactions like
predation and pollination
(below).
 1.3 Level of ecological study
 Ecology not only deals with the study of the relationship of individual organisms
with their environment, but also with the study of populations, communities,
A large community unit, characterized by a major
ecosystems, biomes, and biosphere as a whole
vegetation type and associated fauna, found in a
specific climatic region is a biome( terrestrial
&aquatic)
Biosphere-The highest level of organization
Study of the community in relation to the
structure of its ecosystem-nutrients cycling,
climate, energy flow etc.
A number of different species that live in an area
and interact with each other & Study of structure
and composition of community and interspecific
interactions between members of community.
A group of organisms consisting of a number of different
populations that live in defined area and interact with
each other.(study about interaspesfic interaction &
factors affecting their size)
Interaction at individual level.Study of the form,
physiology, behavior, distribution and adaptation
of organism in relation to environment.
 Name the five main levels of study in ecology
and explain why they are said to have a
hierarchical relationship???
 Whichlevel of ecological study focuses on the
most abiotic factors???
 Arrange levels of ecological organization is in
the correct sequence from most to least
inclusive?????
 1.4 Relevance and application of Ecology

 Ecological science provides new understanding about our surrounding as

it is now, and how it may change in the future
 Understanding ecological issues can help society meet the basic human
needs of food, shelter, and health care.
 Ecology provides the scientific foundations to analyze and address major
environmental problems allowing for informed policy decisions and
mitigation strategies
 A core goal of ecology study is to creat understand the distribution and
abundance of organisms in the environment.
Why is ecology important??????????

Conservation of Environment
How individual action affect
environment

Resource Allocation
Appropriate resource to
minimize competition

Energy Conservation
To control over- exploitation
and wastage of energy

Eco-Friendllines
Encourage harmonious living
within species adoption of life
that protect ecology of life
 Provide new knowledge about interdependence b/n people and
nature which is vital for

For food production

Clean air

Biodiversity conservation
 Applications of Ecology
 Ecology has applications in major areas such as Water shed
Management, Soil conservation ,Agriculture, Wild life Management ,
Aqua Culture, Land Utilization, Pollution.
 Water is stored in Dams or Reservoirs for the purpose of electricity
production at the time of construction of Dams there should be a
ecologist to see ecological aspects, The major aspects are soil erosion
and wind because these two aspects can fill the Dams (silting up)
 Chapter two
What is ENVIRONMENT??????????

 Everything surround us
 The surroundings of an organism that affect its
life and development
 What is the difference and relationship between ecology
and environment??????????

The environment is the physical surrounding of living

organisms, while ecology is the study of how organisms
interact with their environment.
 The environment is the space that support life on earth
and include all the conditions that affect the development
and sustainability of life.

 Where as ecology is the study of how organisms interact

with their environment

 Ecologist study the relationships between organisms and

their environment to better understanding how living
things are connected to their surroundings.
 An environment is characterized by the
ABIOTIC and BIOTIC factors.

 Abiotic factors are non-living.

Abiotic factors include science like chemistry,
physics and geology.
Interactions of abiotic factors result in weather,
seasonal changes, tides, air quality, and water
quality
 Biotic factors are living and can be categorized
within an ecosystem structure…
Species Population Community
All organisms interact with other organisms in their
surroundings and with the nonliving portion of their
environment.

 Their survival depends on these interactions. Ecologists refer

to this quality as interconnectedness or interdependence

Ecology is a broad science that involves collecting information

about organisms and their environments, observing and
measuring interactions, looking for patterns, and seeking to
explain these patterns.

Interconnectedness or interdependence is a key theme found

throughout ecology.
 A consequence of interdependence is that any change
in the environment can spread through the network of
interactions and affect organisms that appear far
removed from the change.
 What Are Adaptations?

 Anything that helps an organism survive in its

environment is an adaptation.

It also refers to the ability of living things to adjust to

different conditions within their environments.
All organisms are adapted to life in general, such as
having legs for walking, wings for flying or leaves for
photosynthesizing. These are general adaptations
 or An adaptation is a body part or behavior that
helps an animal survive in a particular environment
 Adaptation can help an animal breathe, catch food,
or hide.
 The better adapted an organism is to its habitat,
the more successful it will be when competing for
resources such as food and mates.
Organisms also have specific adaptations. These are
special features or behaviours that have evolved to make
an organism particularly suited to its environmental niche.
Adaptations are special characteristics that organisms
develop over time to survive and thrive in their
environments.
 These adaptations can be structural(physical
features), behavioral(how animal act), or
physiological(internal process),
 and help species deal with factors like climate, predators,
and availability of resources
Types of Animal Adaptations
1.Structural Adaptations
These are physical features of an animal that help it survive.
 are body structures that allow an animal to find and consume food, defend
itself, and to reproduce its species.
 Physical adaptations help an animal survive in its environment.
 A structural adaptation involves some part of an animal's
body(Teeth,Body coverings and Movement)
Camouflage: is called Protective Coloration or Camouflage (use of color
in a surrounding animals Helps blend into their surroundings to avoid being
seen by predators or prey.Example: Arctic foxes have white fur in the
winter to blend with snow, The chameleon can change its color to match its
surroundings
Mimicry(looking or sounding like another living
organism
Mimicry: When an animal looks like another species
to deceive predators or prey.
Example: Some butterflies have patterns that
look like owl eyes to scare predators.
The Viceroy butterfly uses mimicry to look like
the Monarch
Poisonous
butterfly. Can you tell them
apart?
I’m the Monarch!

I’m the Viceroy!

 Mimicry allows one animal to look, sound,
or act like another animal to fool predators
into thinking it is poisonous or dangerous.

Body Parts: Animals may have body parts that

help them live in their environment.
 Body coverings & parts (claws, beaks,
feet, armor plates, skulls, teeth)

 The elephant’s trunk is a physical

adaptation that helps it to clean itself,
eat, drink, and to pick things up.
 2.Behavioral Adaptations
These involve how animals act in order to survive
 allow animals to respond to life needs
 include activities that help an animal survive.
 Behaviour adaptations can be learned or
instinctive.

 Social behaviour
 Behaviour for protection
 Instinctivebehaviors =happen
naturally & don’t need to be
learned
 Methods of gathering & storing food
 Defending oneself
 Hibernating
 Finding shelter
 Raising young
 Migrating
 Learned behaviors=Obtained by interacting with the
environment and cannot be passed on to the next
generation except by teaching.

Migration- Animals migrate for

behavioural different reasons.
adaptation that
involves animal or  better climate
group of animals  better food
moving from one  safe place to live
region to another  safeplace to raise
and then back young
again.  goback to the they
were born. place
 Hibernation- This is deep sleep in which animal’s body
temp droops, body activities are slowed to conserve
energy.

 E.g. Bats, woodchucks & bears

Hunting at Night (Nocturnal Behavior): Some animals hunt at

night to avoid predators and stay cool.
 Example: Owls and bats are nocturnal hunters.
 Physiological Adaptations
 These are internal processes that help an
animal survive.
 Venom: Some animals produce venom for
defense or to capture prey.
 Example: Snakes use venom to immobilize prey.
 Temperature Regulation: Some animals can
regulate their body temperature to survive in hot
or cold climates.
 Example: Elephants use their large ears to fan themselves
and keep cool..
 Homeostasis- Maintenance of constant internal
conditions in the face of a varying external
environment.
 Examples:
 The thickening of fur in winter.
 The seeking of shade in heat.
 The production of more red blood cells at high altitude
Plant Adaptations

 Plants adapt to their environment to meet challenges like

extreme temperatures, water availability, and poor soil
conditions.
A. Types of Plant Adaptations
1.Structural Adaptations
These are physical changes that plants develop to survive
in different environments.
 Thick Cuticles: A waxy coating on leaves that helps reduce
water loss in dry environments.
 Example: Cacti in the desert have thick cuticles to conserve water.
 Deep Roots: Some plants have long roots that reach deep
underground to access water.
 Example: Mesquite trees have deep roots to find water in arid
regions.
 Leaf Modifications: Plants may have modified leaves to adapt
2.Behavioral Adaptations
Though plants don’t “behave” like animals, they can exhibit
movements and responses to stimuli.
 Phototropism: Plants grow toward the light to maximize
photosynthesis.
 Example: Sunflowers turn their heads to follow the sun’s movement
during the day.
 Dormancy: Plants go dormant in unfavorable conditions like
extreme cold or drought.
 Example: Deciduous trees shed their leaves in winter to reduce water
loss.

3.Physiological Adaptations
These involve changes in the plant’s internal processes.
 Salt Tolerance: Some plants have evolved to survive in salty
conditions.
 Example: Mangroves have specialized roots that filter out salt from
seawater.

 Chapter Three
Population Ecology
 Population-is a Group of individuals of same species living
in the same geographic area at the same time.

 The properties of populations differ from those of

individuals.

 An individual may be born, it may reproduce, or it may

die.
 A population study focuses on a population as a
whole-how many individuals are born, how many die and
how it change in size so on.
 An individual is either female or male, young or old but a
population has a sex ratio and age structure, which means, the
ratio of male to female in the population and the various age
groups into which the population may be divided
 Population characteristics
 The characteristics of a population is a combination of the study

of how organisms interact with each other and their environment

focusing on the group of individuals of the same species

 There are five main characteristics of a population and these

include population size, population density, population

distribution, age structure and reproductive base.

 Population size
 Size indicate the number of individuals in an area

• Population Size is a fundamental and important population

property but can be difficult to measure directly.

• If a population is small and composed of immobile

organisms, such as plants, its size can be determined
simply by counting individuals through sampling in
quadrant method

• If individuals are too abundant, too wide spread or too

mobile to be counted easily and scientists must estimate the
number (through sampling and transect method ) of
individuals in the population
•Suppose that a scientist wants to know how many oak trees live in a
10km2 patch of forest.

• Instead of searching the entire patch of forest and counting all the oak
trees,

the scientist could count the trees in a smaller section of the

forest such as a 1 km2 area.

•The scientists could then use this value to estimate the population of
the larger area.

•In the small path contains 25 oaks, an area 10 times larger would
likely contain 10 times as many oak trees.

•To use this kind of estimate, the scientist must assume that the
distribution of individuals in the entire population is the same as
that in the sampled group.
Population Density-: Is the number of individuals or
biomass of individuals per unit area or volume at a given
time or it is a population size in relation to some unit of
space.
 e.g 200 trees per acre
 5 million diatoms per cubic meter of water
 200 tonnes of fish per acre of water surface
 The population density may be expressed as crude
density i.e. the density measured at a place at a
particular time it is b/c of
 The density of a population varies with time and space
 Density can be measured-

Actual count
Capture and recapture method through mark on
them
On foot prints
Damage done to the habitat or other organisms,
Excreta
 In case of large, mobile animals like tigers, leopards, lions, deer
etc, the density may be determined by counting individual animals
directly or by the pugmarks (foot imprints) left by the animals in a
defined area.
 Pugmarks of each individual animals are unique and different from
one others. Study of pug marks can provide the following
information reliably if analyzed skillfully
Presence of different species in the area of study.
Identification of individual animals.
 Population of large cats (tigers, lions etc.).
Sex ratio and age (young or adult) of large cats
 Counting of human population is called census each
individual is physically counted.
 The density of a population thus basically depends on four
factors: i) natality, ii) mortality, iii) immigration and iv)
emigration
Natality: The rate at which new individuals are born and added
to a population under given environmental conditions. Birth,
hatching, germination and vegetative propagation cause an
increase in the number of individuals in a population.
Mortality: Loss of individuals from a population due to death.
 The number of individuals dead in a year is calculated for
obtaining the mortality rate or death rate.
 Mortality rate in human population may be expressed in terms
of number of persons dead per thousand per year.
 Migration is the process of coming and going.

 Migrations are usually seasonal or periodic and in most

cases occur along definite pathways.(climatic condn, food
availability etc)

 The movement of individuals of a population out of a region on a

permanent basis is termed emigration (going out )

 while immigration refers to the movement of individuals into a new area

where dispersal includes both emigration and immigration of
individuals(comes as settler).
Dispersal: The spreading of individual
 The Spatial spreading or pattern of spacing of organisms with in the population

The population of a region is affected by dispersal.

1.Uniform dispersion is when individuals are evenly spaced. individual are

separated by fairly constant distance
2. Random dispersion is the positions of individual is independent of the others

3.Clumped distributions when individuals aggregate in patch and individual clustered

togather
Age distribution -refers to the proportions of individuals of
different age groups in a population. The population may
be broadly divided into three age groups:-
Pre-reproductive group(0-14): comprising of juvenile
individuals or children,
Reproductive group(15-44): consisting of individuals
capable of reproduction ,
Post-reproductive group(>45): contains aged individuals
who are incapable of reproduction.
 A rapidly growing population will usually contain a large
proportion of individuals in the reproductive age group;
a stationary population (where there is no increase or
decrease in population) contains an even distribution of all
age groups, and
a declining population contains a large proportion of old or
post-reproductive age of an individuals
Population dynamics- is the study of how populations change in
size, density and age distribution
All populations are dynamic- they change in size and composition over
time.
 To understand these changes, important measure are:-
 the birth rate, the number of births occurring in a period
of time.
 the death rate or mortality rate, which is the number of
deaths in a period of time.
 life expectancy or how long on average an individual is
expected to live.
Natality - is the inherent ability of a population to increase. Natality rate
= birth rate.
It may represent:-
 1) Fecundity rate of a species = the maximum potential rate of which
the females of a particulars species produce offspring physiologically
 2) Fertility rate = the actual number of new offspring or the observed
rate of natality in a population produced per female per unit time (rate
per female during the reproductive years)
 Maximum (absolute or physiological) natality - the theoretical
maximum production of new individuals under ideal conditions
 Ecological or realized natality refers to population increase under an
actual or specific environmental condition;
 Natality is generally expressed as a rate determined by
dividing the number of new individuals produced by time (Nn/t)=B (the
absolute natality rate) or natality rate of the population
as the number of new individuals per unit of time per unit of population
Nn/(Nt)=b, the specific natality rate). natality rate per unit of
population
Suppose a population of 50 protozoa in a pool has increased by division to 150 after an
hour has passed. Then calculate
a. natality rate of protozoa population
b. natality rate per unit of protozoa population

N (the initial number) = 50

N (change in number) = N2-N1= 150-50=100
N (average rate of change per time) = 150-50 =
100individuals
t 1hr.
N (average rate of change per time per individual) =
100 = 2 Nt individual.
(50 x 1hr)
 Mortality: - refers to death of individuals in the population.
 Ecological or realized mortality - the loss of individuals under a
given environmental condition  not a constant.
 Theoretical minimum mortality  the loss of individuals under ideal
or non limiting conditions
 Factors of Mortality: -
- Disease
- Predation,
- Parasitism
- Antibiosis
- Physical conflict
- Starvation
- Malnutrition
 What is the Advantages and disadvantages of being a member of a
population?
 Advantages Disadvatages

Protection
Reproduction Intraspecific interaction
Promote genetic diversity Increase in level of stress
Intraspecific competition Alteration of habitat
Division of labor and co- Disease transmission
poration
 POPULATION GROWTH
 The growth, stability or decline in number of individuals in a
population is influenced by its relation with the environment.
 Populations have characteristic patterns of growth with time,
which is depicted by population growth curves.
Calculating Population Change

growth rate (r) = (b-d) + (I-e)

 Population Growth Models

o Exponential Growth
o Logistic Growth
 Exponential Growth Curve

 As the birth rate of a population exceeds the death rate,

the population size will continue to increase.

 At a steady, positive per capita growth rate, the

population will add a larger number of individuals with
each generation.

 A pattern of increase in number due to a steady growth

rate is called exponential growth.
 A graph of exponential growth makes the characteristic j
shaped curve.
•population size grows slowly when it is small, but growth
speeds up as individuals join the population.

•Exponential model indicates constantly increasing

population growth.

The exponential model lead us to predict that the

population size will increase indefinitely and by a greater
number with each time period.
 Usually slow at first
 Called a “J”-shaped curve
 Slow at first because number of
reproducing organisms is small
 Called exponential growth:
as a population gets larger, it grows faster
 Applying the exponential model
•The exponential model matches observed patterns of
growth of real populations, but only under certain
conditions for limited periods of time.

For example, a population of microorganisms can grow

exponentially if provided with an abundance of food
and space.
 However, the exponential model does not apply to most
populations
•In natural environments, populations

cannot grow indefinitely because the

resources they depend on become scarce

and harmful wastes accumulate.

•Any factor, such as space, that restrains

the growth of a population is called a

limiting factor.
All populations are ultimately limited by their
environment.

•As a population grows, competition among

individuals for the shrinking supply of resources
intensifies, and each individual on average, obtains
a smaller share.
Thus each individuals ability to fight off disease,
grow, and reproduce decreases.
As a result the population birth rate declines
and death rate increases.
 THE LOGISTIC MODEL

Birth rates and death rates are not constant but vary with population

size.

Birth rates decline and death rates rise as the population grows.

The logistic model includes a new term, carrying capacity (k), the

number of individuals the environment can support over a long

period of time.

A graph of logistic growth looks like a stretched out letter S. (S shaped)

when the population size is small, birth rates are high and death rates

are low, and the population grows at very near the exponential rate.
But as the population size approaches the carrying
capacity, the population growth rate slows because of
the falling birth rate and the increasing death rate.

 When a population size is at its carrying capacity the

birth rate equals the death rate and growth stops.

 This pattern of growth is known as logistic growth

Logistic growth—indicated
by an S-shaped curve
Difference between
logistic and exponential
due to environmental
resistance
Environmental Resistance
 Environmental limits (resistance)
 Prevent indefinite reproduction
 Population growth usually stops due to lack of resources
 Food
 Water
 Shelter
 Space
 Population growth usually stops due to build up of waste
products which poison the organisms
 Carrying Capacity (K)
 Maximum # of individuals an environment can
support

 Causes leveling off of exponential growth

 S- shaped curve of logistic population growth

 “J”-shaped population growth
pattern
 Also called “r” strategists
 Mosquito, bacteria
 Reproduce very rapidly, produce
many off spring in short period of
time
 Environment unpredictable and
change rapidly
 Small body size, mature rapidly,
reproduce early, short life span
 Populations increase rapidly then
decline
”S”-shaped population growth
pattern
 Also called “k” strategists
 Slow rate of reproduction,
produce few offspring
 Elephants, bears, whales,
redwood trees, cacti
 Live in stable environment
 Large, reproduce and mature
slowly, long-lived
 Maintain population size near
carrying capacity
 POPULATION REGULATION
 Limiting Factors: biotic or abiotic factors that
regulate size of a population

 Two kinds of limiting factors, which control population

size are:-

 1. Density dependent factors

2. Density independent factors

. Density Dependent Factor
 Are triggered by increasing population density
 Increasing effect as population size increases
 Examples:

 Predation

 Disease

 Competition

 Parasites

 Food

 The more dense the population the faster disease

can spread
 Sometimes cause Boom-or-Bust Population Cycles
Density Independent Factors
 Factors that affects population size, but is not
influenced by changes in population density
 Affectall populations regardless of their density
 Most are abiotic factors
 Examples:
 Temperature Fire
 Floods
 Storms
 Drought
 Habitat destruction(Killing frost)
 Pollution
 Chapter four-Community Ecology
 A community consists of populations of different species that live in a
defined geographic area and interact with one another. For example, a
forest community may include trees, birds, insects, fungi, and other
organisms.
 Community ecology is the study of how different species
interact within a defined area. These interactions form a
complex web of relationships that influence species
distribution, population dynamics, community structure,
and ecosystem functioning

• Understanding community ecology helps in predicting

changes in biodiversity and managing ecosystems
sustainably.
Every community has a definite feeding (trophic) organization and
metabolic pattern.
Similar communities in different geographic areas have ecological
equivalents
Ecological equivalents are species that occupy similar niches but live in
different geographical regions.

What is the difference bln habitat and niche?

Every organism has a habitat and a niche
A place where organisms live whereas niche is an organism
profession in its ecology
habitat provides all the basic requirements for survival but Each
organism has its own way of gathering food reproducing and avoiding
predators
 Community structure
 A community has structural attributes that distinguish it from diverse
communities.
 The animal community and its structure are dependent upon the plant
community and its structure.
 The study of plant communities is called phytosociology.
 The structural attributes of a community are divided into
analytical and synthetic
 Analytical characters are those directly observed in the
field.
 And can be qualitative or quantitative.
 While the synthetic characters are calculated based on
the data obtained from analytical characters
 3.1.1. Analytical characters

Qualitative Analytical Characters

1. Physiognomy: - refers to the external appearance of the
community(on the basis of dominant plant height, color,
etc.)
2. Periodicity: - is a term used to describe the occurrence of
fairly regular intervals in time of various biological
processes in plants and animals and the manifestation,
also at regular time intervals, of these processes as
significant developmental changes.
3. active cell division, cell enlargement, increased or
decreased photosynthesis, loss of leaves, formation of
new leaves, flowering, fruiting and dispersal of fruits and
seeds, breeding and migration patterns of animals etc.
Phonology: - the study of life cycle phases periodically and seasonally or
activities of plants and animals in their temporal occurrence through out
the year.
 Phenophase = each phase in the life cycle
A spection :- the appearance of the community as a whole at different
seasons as its appearance in rainy season (autumnal), summer (aestival),
spring (vernal), winter ( hibernal) seasons.
.Stratification or Layering:- the distribution of plants in the vertical space.
Trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, and lichens, climbers, saprophytes, parasites
associated with the tree trunks and branches at different strata also in
animals
 For plantsL1 = Ground stratum
 L2 = Herbaceous or ground flora
 L3 = Middle or Shrubby layer
 L4 = Top or canopy layer
Abundance: - The relative distribution of a species in a
community
Large number of individuals at one place = not abundant
Same number of individuals spread through out the community =
abundant
Five degrees:
 1 = rare (r) or very sparse
 2 = occasional (o) or sparse
 3 = frequent (f) or not numerous
 4 = abundant (a) or numerous = co-dominant
 5 = very abundant (va) or very numerous = dominant
Dispersion- refers to the distribution pattern of individuals of a species
in the horizontal space.
 Random or chance distribution- occurs when there is an equal
probability of an organism occupying any point in space, and when the
presence of one individual does not influence the presence of another.

 Regular or uniform or even) distribution - occurs either when each

individual has a tendency to avoid all other individuals, or when
individuals that are too close to other individuals die or leave the
population together.

 Aggregated or clumped distribution occurs when individuals all tend

to be attracted to (or more likely to survive in)
particular parts of the environment
 Sociability- is the degree of clumping. Expresses the relation of
individuals to each other and indicates the closeness between individuals
or the proximity or space relations of individual organisms( single, small
group, small patch, large patch and continuous populations)
 Vitality: represented by the normal growth and reproductive capacity of
the species, under the existing conditions of the environment, which helps
it in maintaining its position in the community.
 V1= Plants which germinate but die soon without reproducing
 V2= Plants which linger after germination but can't reproduce
 V3= Plants which reproduce but only vegetatively
 V4= Plants which reproduce but rather feebly
 V5= Plants which reproduce sexually very well
Life form: - the characteristic form of a plant in the vegetative state. The
criteria to be used include shape, size, mode of branching, method of
perennation (resting), average area of leaf or leaf let and the position of the
perennating buds is often crucial in the determination
Phanerophytes- aerial plants with perennating buds borne above ground
level and exposed to the weather.
Chamaephytes- surface plants with perennating buds borne just above
ground level (above the surface).
Hemicryptophytes- perennating buds half-hidden in the surface of the soil.
Cryptophytes- perennating buds buried in the soil or beneath standing water
a) Geophytes- perennating buds buried in the soil-plants with bulbs,
rhizomes, tubers, corms
b) Helophytes- marsh plants with perennating buds in water logged mud
c) Hydrophytes- water plants with perennating buds beneath water
Therophytes- plants which germinate, fruit, produce seeds in brief complete
cycles
- Survive as seeds during unfavorable seasons
Epiphytes- plants growing on other plants (support plants) with out drawing
food from them, no roots in the soil.
Disseminule Types (Dispersal organs) :
1.Anemochore (wind dispersed)- plumose,
minute)microscopic,tine, winged
2.Zoochore (animal dispersed)- fleshy, nut like, adhesive
(bonding), hairy
3.Hydrochore (water dispersed)- buoyant, splash cup
4.Autochore (self dispersed)- explosive, stoloniferous
Quantitative Analytical Characters