COMPUTER NETWORKS

Data Communications
• Data communication is the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of
transmission media
• local or Remote
• Effectiveness of data communication
• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Timeliness
 A Communications Model
• Source
– generates data to be transmitted
• Transmitter
– Converts data into transmittable signals
• Transmission System
– Carries data
• Receiver
– Converts received signal into data
• Destination
– Takes incoming data
Simplified Communications Model -
Diagram
 Why Networking??
• Point to point communication not usually
practical
– Devices are too far apart
– Large set of devices would need impractical
number of connections
• Solution is a communications network
Definition : A computer network is a
system for communicating between
two or more computers and
associated devices. It is an
interconnection of two or more
autonomous computers for the
purposes of sharing information and
resources.
Simplified Network Model
 An example of a network

Router
Hub
Bridge Segment Node

Hub

Internet

8
 Components
• Sender
• Receiver
• Data
• Transmission media
• Hardware & software units
• Storage
 Computer Networks

• Goals • Performance
Resource sharing Performance
Reliability Reliability
Scalability Speed
Saving money Security
Best Communication
media
Features of Computer networks
 Applications of Communication & Computer Network

• Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form

a network. They provide numerous advantages:
• Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
• Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
• Information sharing by using Web or Internet
• Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
• IP phones
• Video conferences
• Parallel computing
• Instant messaging
Direction of Data flow/Transmission mode
• Communication means the transfer or exchange of data
between two different devices . In Communication process
whenever data transfers it depends on the condition or
depends on devices that through which type data will transfer.
 Simplex
1.Simplex:
• In simplex data flow only in one direction.
• Its mean in simplex if two devices are connected only one
device will send data the other device will only receive data it
can not send.
• In this type channel will use all of its capacity only in sending
data.
• Example of this type is: Mouse(it can only input data etc)
 Half duplex
2.Half duplex:
• In this type of data flow data will flow in both directions but not at the same
time. For example :If two devices are connected both of them can send
information to each other but not at the same time . When one device will
send data the other will receive it cannot send back at the same time after
receiving it can send data.
• In half duplex channel will use all of its capacity for each direction. So this
type will be used in the communication in which there is no need of response
at the same time.
• Example of this type is Walkie Talkies.
 Full duplex
3.Full duplex:
• n Full Duplex data will flow in both directions at the same time.For Example:
If two devices are connected in communication both of them can send and
receive data at the same time.
• In Full Duplex channel will divide all of its capacity in both directions . Full
Duplex is used when communication is required in both directions at the
same time .
• Example of Full Duplex is calling on mobile phone etc.
 Categories of Networks
• Three types of networks
– Local area networks (LANs)
– Metropolitan area networks (MANs)
– Wide area networks (WANs)
• LAN
– Interconnects computers, printers, other equipment
– Consists of shared hardware and software resources
in close physical proximity
– Example: University Comp Sci Department

17
 Types of Networks
LAN stands for local area network.
• It is a group of network devices that allow communication between various connected
devices.
• Private ownership has control over the local area network rather than the public.
• LAN has a short propagation delay than MAN as well as WAN. It covers the smallest area
such as colleges, schools, hospitals, and so on.

MAN stands for metropolitan area network.

• It covers the largest area than LAN such as small towns, cities, etc.
• MAN connects two or more computers that reside within the same or completely different
cities.
• MAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.
WAN stands for wide area network.
• It covers a large area than LAN as well as a MAN such as country/continent etc.
• WAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.
• PSTN or satellite medium is used for wide area networks.
19
 Difference between LAN,MAN and WAN
Parameters LAN MAN WAN

Stands for

Ownership

Transmission
speed
Propagation
delay
Congestion

Maintenance

Fault
tolerance

20
 Topology
Topology: physical layout combined with logical path
or
The arrangement of a network which comprises of nodes and connecting
lines via sender and receiver is referred as network topology.

• Cable plant: pattern of physical layout

– Wired networks: cabling laid in office, building, campus
– Wireless networks: types of antennas, devices, direction of transmission
• Decentralized network layout
– Cable between each station on network
– Analogy: mountain climbers connected by a rope
• Centralized network layout
– Each station physically connected to central device
– Analogy: star with workstation as its points

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 Network Topologies (continued)
• Main topologies: bus, ring, star, mesh, hierarchical,
• Hybrid topologies: star-bus, star-ring
• Selecting topology for network
– Consider intended purpose
• Throughput
• Systems grow or shrink in size
• network traffic (number of frames to transmit)
• Cost
• Centralized
• complexity
• Connection to other networks
• Security needs

• Network topology influences network growth potential

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 Bus Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every
computer and network device is connected to
single cable.
It transmits the data from one end to another in
single direction.
No bi-directional feature is in bus topology.
 Bus Topology
Advantages of this topology :

• If N devices are connected to each other in bus topology, then the

number of cables required to connect them is 1 which is known as
backbone cable and N drop lines are required.
• Cost of the cable is less as compared to other topology, but it is
used to built small networks.

Problems with this topology :

• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network.
To avoid this, various protocols are used in MAC layer known as
Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD etc
 Star Topology
• In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub
through a cable.
• This hub is the central node and all others nodes are
connected to the central node.
• The hub can be passive in nature i.e. not intelligent hub such
as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as active hubs.
• Active hubs have repeaters in them.
 Star Topology
Advantages of this topology :
• If N devices are connected to each other in star topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device require only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub.
Problems with this topology :

• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the
whole system will crash down.
• Cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
 Ring topology
• In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with its exactly two neighboring
devices.
• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology
with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the
100th node.
• Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
• The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
 Ring Topology
The following operations takes place in ring topology are :

• One station is known as monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform the
operations.
• To transmit the data, station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the
token is to be released for other stations to use.
• When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
• There are two types of token release techniques : Early token release releases the token
just after the transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgement is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology :

• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.

• Cheap to install and expand.
Problems with this topology :

• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.

• Addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Mesh Topology
• In mesh topology, every device is connected to another
device via particular channel.
• If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each
other in mesh topology, then total number of ports that is
required by each device is ? N-1. In the Figure 1, there are 5
devices connected to each other, hence total number of ports
required is 4.
• If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh
topology, then total number of dedicated links required to connect them
is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In the Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each
other, hence total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10 .
 Mesh Topology
• Advantages of this topology :

• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred
among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
• Problems with this topology :

• Installation and configuration is difficult.

• Cost of cables are high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for
less number of devices.
• Cost of maintenance is high.
 Tree topology
• This topology is the variation of Star topology. This topology have
hierarchical flow of data.
• In this the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. In this data flow from top to bottom i.e from the
central hub to secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top
i.e. devices to secondary hub and then to the central hub.
 Tree Topology

• Advantages of this topology :

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central

hub thus it increases the distance that is travel by the signal
to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolate and also prioritize from
different computers.
• Problems with this topology :

• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

• The cost is high because of cabling.
Types of Topology
 Network Hardware
• Hub
– An unintelligent network device that OSI Model Layers
sends one signal to all of the stations
connected to it. 7 Application
6 Presentation
– All computers/devices are competing 5 Session
for attention because it takes the data 4 Transport
that comes into a port and sends it 3 Network
out all the other ports in the hub. 2 Data Link
– Traditionally, hubs are used for star 1 Physical
topology networks, but they are often
used with other configurations to
make it easy to add and remove
computers without bringing down the
network.
– Resides on Layer 1 of the OSI model
 Network Hardware
• Bridge OSI Model Layers
7 Application
– Connects two LANs and forwards or 6 Presentation
filters data packets between them. 5 Session
– Creates an extended network in which 4 Transport
any two workstations on the linked 3 Network
LANs can share data. 2 Data Link
1 Physical
– Transparent to protocols and to higher
level devices like routers.
– Forward data depending on the
Hardware (MAC) address, not the
Network address (IP).
– Resides on Layer 2 of the OSI model.
 Network Hardware

• Repeater OSI Model Layers

7 Application
– Used to boost the signal between two 6 Presentation
5 Session
cable segments or wireless access 4 Transport
points. 3 Network
2 Data Link
– Can not connect different network 1 Physical
architecture.
– Does not simply amplify the signal, it
regenerates the packets and retimes
them.
– Resides on Layer 1 of the OSI model.
 Network Hardware
• Router
– A device that connects any number of LANs. OSI Model Layers

– Uses standardized protocols to move packets 7 Application

6 Presentation
efficiently to their destination.
5 Session
– More sophisticated than bridges, connecting 4 Transport
networks of different types (for example, star 3 Network
and token ring) 2 Data Link
– Forwards data depending on the Network 1 Physical

address (IP), not the Hardware (MAC) address.

– Routers are the only one of these four devices
that will allow you to share a single IP address
among multiple network clients.
– Resides on Layer 3 of the OSI model.
 Network Hardware
• Additional Network Hardware Devices
– Network Interface Cards (NICs)
• Puts the data into packets and transmits packet onto the network.
• May be wired or wireless.
– Gateway
• Connects networks with different protocols like TCP/IP network and
IPX/SPX networks.
• Routers and Gateways often refer to the same device.
– Proxy server
• Isolates internal network computers from the internet.
• The user first access the proxy server and the proxy server accesses
the internet and retrieves the requested web page or document. The
user then gets a copy of that page from the proxy server.
 Switching Techniques
In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender and receiver.
Information may be switched as it travels through various communication channels.
There are three typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.

• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
 Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the
sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
• Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes
a path that connects the caller's telephone to the
receiver's telephone by making a physical connection.
• With this type of switching technique, once a connection
is established, a dedicated path exists between both ends
until the connection is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first
established, but there are no decisions made after that
time.
Example of circuit switching
 Message Switching

• With message switching there is no need to establish a

dedicated path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is
appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its
entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its
entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to the next
node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
Example of Message switching
 Message Switching

A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose computer. The device

needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming messages,
which could be long. A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to
store- and-forward time, plus the time required to find the next node in the
transmission path.
 Packet Switching
•The Internet is a packet swithced network
•Messages are broken into smaller chuncks called packets
•Each packet is sent individually
•Each packet has SA and DA
•Packet Switching is divided in to two types
Datagram
Virtual circuit
DATAGRAM
• Connection less
• Path is not fixed
• Each and every path has its individual path

VIRTUAL CIRCUIT
• Connection ORIENTED
• Path is fixed
• Packets follow same path
Example: Datagram Approach
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
 Approaches to Network Design

• Top Down Approach is a design is a methodology for

designing networks that begins at the upper layers of the
OSI reference model before moving to the lower layers. It
focuses on applications, sessions, and data transport
before the selection of routers, switches, and media that
operate at the lower layers.
• Bottom-Up Model, the focus is on identifying and
resolving smallest problems and then integrating them
together to solve the bigger problem. The bottom-up
approach allows decisions to be made by the same
people who are working directly on a project.
 ISO/OSI
Reference Model
 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter
 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model

All People Seem to Need Data

Processing.
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
All People seems to need Data Processing
Physical layer
Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration
– Point-to-point
– mlutipoint
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode and transmission media
– Simplex
– Half duplex
– Full duplex
Data link layer
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Responsibilities of the Data link layer

• Framing
• Node to node delivery
• Flow control
• Error control
• Access control
• Synchronization
Hop-to-hop delivery
Network layer
Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Other responsibilities of the Network layer

• Logical addressing
• Source to destination delivery
• Routing
• Congestion
• tunnelling
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Other responsibilities of the Transport layer

• End to End message delivery

• Segmentation and reassembly
– Each segment has a sequence number
• Connection control
– Connectionless
– Connection-oriented
• Flow control (end-to-end)
• Error control (process-to-process)
• QOS(throughput,delay,protection,priority,reliabilit
y)
 Types of errors

• Damage
• Loss
• Duplication

– Error correction is usually achieved through

retransmission
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Session layer
Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

Session layer establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among

communicating system
 Responsibilities of the session layer
• Dialog control
– Allows two systems to enter into a dialog
– Allows the communication between two processes
to take place in either
• Half duplex mode
• Full duplex mode
• Synchronization
– Allows a process to add checkpoints or
synchronization points to a stream of data
Graceful close

2.74
Presentation layer
Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
Responsibilities of the presentation layer

• Translation
– The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format
into a common format
– The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver-
dependent format
• Encryption and decryption
• Compression
Application layer
Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Services provided by the application layer

• Network virtual terminal

– allows a user to log on to a remote host
• File transfer, access, and management
• Mail services
• Directory services
– Provides distributed database sources and access
for global information about various objects and
services
Summary of layers
 TCP/IP
1. The full form of TCP/IP is Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet
Protocol.
2. It is a communication protocol that is based on standard protocols and
allows the connection of hosts over a network.
3. In 1982, the TCP/IP model became the standard language of ARPANET.
4. It comprises of four layers:
Network Interface
Internet
Transport
Application
5. It follows horizontal approach
6. Protocol dependent
7. The TCP/IP is the implementation of the OSI Model.
OSI with TCP/IP
Figure TCP/IP protocol Suite
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