22 AIE 202

OPERATING SYSTEMS

Roshni M Balakrishnan
Department of Computer Science &
Engineering,
Amrita School of Engineering, Bengaluru
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Topics
• Process Concept
• Process Scheduling
• Operations on Processes

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Introduction
• Process – a program in execution; process execution must
progress in sequential fashion
• Multiple parts
• The program code, also called text section
• Current activity including program counter, processor registers
• Stack containing temporary data
• Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
• Data section containing global variables
• Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time

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• Program is passive entity stored on disk (executable file)
• But process is active
• Program becomes process when executable file loaded into memory
• Execution of program started via GUI mouse clicks,
command line entry of its name, etc
• One program can be several processes
• Consider multiple users executing the same program

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Process Structure

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Process States
• As a process executes, it changes state
• new: The process is being created
• running: Instructions are being executed
• waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
• ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
• terminated: The process has finished execution

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Life Cycle of a Process

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Process Control Block
Information associated with each process
(also called task control block)
• Process state – running, waiting, etc
• Program counter – location of instruction to
next execute
• CPU registers – contents of all process-centric
registers
• CPU scheduling information- priorities,
scheduling queue pointers
• Memory-management information – memory
allocated to the process
• Accounting information – CPU used, clock
time elapsed since start, time limits
• I/O status information – I/O devices allocated
to process, list of open files

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CPU Switch From Process to Process

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Process Scheduling
• Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for
time sharing
• Process scheduler selects among available processes for
next execution on CPU
• Maintains scheduling queues of processes
• Job queue – set of all processes in the system
• Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready
and waiting to execute
• Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device
• Processes migrate among the various queues

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Representation of Scheduling
 Queueing diagram represents queues, resources, flows

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Schedulers
• Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be
executed next and allocates CPU
• Sometimes the only scheduler in a system
• Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds)  (must be fast)
• Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be
brought into the ready queue
• Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes)  (may be
slow)
• The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
• Processes can be described as either:
• I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many
short CPU bursts
• CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long
CPU bursts
• Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix

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Addition of Medium Term Scheduling
• Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of multiple
programming needs to decrease
• Remove process from memory, store on disk, bring back in from disk to continue
execution: swapping

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CPU-I/O Burst Cycle
Context Switch
• When CPU switches to another process, the system must
save the state of the old process and load the saved state
for the new process via a context switch
• Context of a process represented in the PCB
• Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful
work while switching
• The more complex the OS and the PCB  the longer the context
switch
• Time dependent on hardware support
• Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU 
multiple contexts loaded at once

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Scheduler
 Short-term scheduler selects from among the processes in
ready queue, and allocates the CPU to one of them
 Queue may be ordered in various ways
 CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1. Switches from running to waiting state
2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready
4. Terminates
 Scheduling under 1 and 4 is nonpreemptive
 All other scheduling is preemptive
 Consider access to shared data
 Consider preemption while in kernel mode
 Consider interrupts occurring during crucial OS activities

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Dispatcher
• Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the process
selected by the short-term scheduler; this involves:
• switching context
• switching to user mode
• jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that
program
• Dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop
one process and start another running

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Criteria
• CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible
• Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution
per time unit
• Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular
process
• Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting
in the ready queue
• Response time – amount of time it takes from when a
request was submitted until the first response is produced,
not output (for time-sharing environment)

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Optimization of Scheduling Criteria
• Max CPU utilization
• Max throughput
• Min turnaround time
• Min waiting time
• Min response time

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 Equations to be noted

Turn Around Time = Completion Time – Arrival Time

Waiting Time = Turn Around Time – Burst Time

Turn Around Time = Completion Time – Arrival Time

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First Come First Serve (FCFS)
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
• Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3
The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:
P1 P2 P3
0 24 27 30

• Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

• Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17

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Shortest Job First (SJF)
• Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst
• Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest time
• SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a
given set of processes
• The difficulty is knowing the length of the next CPU request
• Could ask the user

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 ProcessArriva l TimeBurst Time
P1 0.0 6
P2 2.0 8
P3 4.0 7
P4 5.0 3

• SJF scheduling chart

P4 P1 P3 P2
0 3 9 16 24

• Average waiting time = (3 + 16 + 9 + 0) / 4 = 7

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 Wait time
P4= 0-0=0
P1= 3-2=1
P2= 9-5=4
P5= 11-4=7
P3= 15-1=14

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SJF – Preemptive (SRTF)
• In Preemptive SJF Scheduling, jobs are put into the ready queue as they
come.
• A process with shortest burst time begins execution.
• If a process with even a shorter burst time arrives, the current process is
removed or preempted from execution, and the shorter job is allocated
CPU cycle.

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 Wait time
P4= 0-0=0
P1= (3-2) + 6 =7
P2= 5-5 = 0
P5= 4-4+2 =2
P3= 15-1 = 14

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 Thank
you !!!!!

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